INTRODUCTION
We have designed this unit to introduce you to how drama evolved in medieval England. We have attempted a chronological perspective of the subject matter, beginning with its evolvement from Greece and Rome up to England. Drama and theatre were well received in England, particularly in the Church, and after a while, these moved into the street. Other concepts that relate to drama and theatre are also discussed in this Unit. Below are some of the objectives of this unit.
3.1 The Evolvement of Drama: From Greeks and Romans to the English
It is generally believed that drama evolved from certain religious ceremonies. Greek tragedy for instance, emerged from Dionysian rites of life and death.
Tragedy is concerned with the problems of death while comedy is from certain Dionysian rites of fertility. Drama was popular with the Greeks and Romans until their influence diminished. But drama assumed a new life in the Church as it was used by priests to explain some aspects of the scripture like the birth and death of Jesus Christ, the temptations of Jesus Christ by the devil. Later, play production moved from the four walls of the Church into the immediate society ministering to the social needs of a much larger audience. This marked the beginning of medieval drama, and vernacular took the place of Latin as the language of rendition.
Afterwards, mystery plays gradually gave in to another type: morality plays. These new ones focused on familiar biblical themes to dramatise important but abstract moral values like meekness, virtue, disobedience, and sin. Morality plays led to another type of drama, the interlude, which is a short court entertainment. From the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century A.D. throughout a thousand year period, drama (liturgical, mystery and morality plays , farces and masques) flourished considerably. During this time, many of the themes were moralistic in nature. Apart from tragedies and comedies, dances and other social forms of entertainments also dominated the stage.
However, in Rome, between 500 – 900 A.D., drama and staged plays/theatre were considered diabolical and as such a threat to the growth and spread of Christian ethics and philosophy. The Church fathers of the period like Augustine and Tertullian believed that the stage promoted immorality because its practices through acting were sinful and anti-Christian, especially in its mockery of God‟s creation, Christ and Christology. Every effort was made not only to convert Muslims, pagans and Jews, but to also destroy every existing pre-Christian institutions and non-Christian gods and religions that were considered satanic. In line with this, theatres like the Platonic Academy were shut, Olympic Games were banned, and Greek and Roman Literatures were burnt.
The ban on theatre and dramatic performances by the Church was strengthened with the laws that prohibited Roman actors from having contact with Christian women, slaves or wear gold. Throughout Europe, actors were viewed as vagabonds, lazy and uncouth fellows who should not be allowed to perform in any ideal society. With the „legislated‟ persecution against drama/actors by the Church in Rome, there was chaos in Western Europe in the 5th century in the midst of the confusion and condemnation that enveloped drama and actors throughout the period.
In what looks like an effort to reverse the trend, Hrosvitha, an aristocratic canoness and historian in northern Germany, wrote six plays using religious subjects in the 10th century A.D. Hrosvitha‟s plays modeled on Terence‟s comedies which were used in schools to discuss common human pursuits like love, sex and marriage. Hrosvitha‟s preface argued that the moral purpose of the plays was to replay/revisit the possible guilt Christians must feel when reading Classical Literature. The six postclassical plays also promoted the cause of women emancipation. Hosvitha‟s works of 1510 that influenced religious and didactic plays of the sixteenth century was followed by Hildegard of Bingen (1179), a Benedictine Abbes, who wrote a Latin musical drama, Ordo Virtutumin (1155).
The negativity drama was shrouded in did not mean that it was totally abolished from the Church. Liturgical dramas like mystery and morality plays were still a means of the propagation of the Christian faith. However, only a few churches in Europe performed these plays as many were not enthusiastic about it. The Feast of Fools that reflected the routine of the church life was an important comedy of the period. The plays were translated into vernacular and performed outside the Church in the 12th century for easy accessibility. The use of vernacular made people to understand and enjoy drama. Some popular plays of the period were La Sente Resurrection (Norman), The Mystery of Adam, The Play of the Magi Kings (Spanish) and Sponsus (French).
3.1.1. MEDIEVAL RELIGIOUS PLAYS
These are plays that evolved within the medieval Christian cycle, when it became imperative that activities of the missionaries and clergies needed a boost to achieve the church‟s conversion objective.
In Medieval England, the church clergy decided to convert pagans and atheists, as well as replace the existing plays with liturgical ones, as the former were viewed as immoral, especially when the background of such plays were considered far from the doctrinal view of the early Church. This informed the decision of the clergy to reject some plays and performance within the church, while a few others were approved to strengthen missionary activities of the period.
3.1.2 MYSTERY PLAYS
Mystery plays became popular in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They explored biblical stories, using religious themes in its rendition. They were popular in the medieval period, especially during the Corpus Christi festival, though they eventually became obsolete when there was a shift of interest from liturgical drama to secular ones. With the spirit of the Renaissance, mystery plays diminished in popularity. Characters of mystery plays are mostly unreal or shadowy but „reflective‟ types. The plays are often a comprehensive study of low life.
3.1.3 MIRACLE PLAYS
This is a theatrical drama that displays biblical stories, the lives of saints, particularly the 4th century bishop, St. Nicholas, and the life of the Virgin Mary. Miracle Plays were also called Saints Plays and were quite popular between the 10th and 11th centuries in medieval Europe.
3.1.4 MORALITY PLAYS
As the name suggests, these plays teach moral lessons and promote moral values generally. Mostly, the dramatic plot encourages the audience to be good Christians and live morally conscious and fulfilled lives. The overall purpose of morality plays is to teach the principles of Christian living through the exploration of Biblical themes/stories of mysteries. A morality play can be defined as a dramatised moral allegory. Usually, God is placed at the centre of stories with a satanic figure playing the villain. It reflects how people easily give in to temptations and live lives of sin and recklessness, and how they eventually repent, confess their sins and obtain God‟s mercy and pardon. By this, they are assured of God‟s salvation and the hope of Heaven.
A popular morality play is the late 15th century allegorical Dutch play, Everyman, whose author remains unknown, typical of many writings of the medieval era. In the play, many of the characters have allegorical names like Everyman, God, Death, Fate, Messenger, Goods, Fellowship, Kindred, Good Deeds, Beauty, Confession, Angel, Strength, Discussion, and Doctor. In the play, the central character, Everyman, receives Death‟s summons to die. He tried to escape but at last resigned to Fate. In the struggle to escape with his life, his Kindred, Goods and Fellowship deserted him, leaving only Good Deeds with him to the grave.
3.1.5 MEDIEVAL SECULAR PLAYS
There were also a number of secular plays that were staged in the Middle Ages. The earliest of them is The Play of the Greenwood by Adam de la Halk staged in 1276. It was in the usual satire of that age: the depiction of folk materials, using faeries and supernatural elements experiences/discourses.
3.1.6 FARCES
Farces began in the 13th century. It has its origin in France and Germany, its emphasis was mostly on sex and bodily excretions. Farces are similar in tone and form. A well-known Fascist playwright of the period was Hans Sachs who wrote 1,981 plays. His counterpart in England, John Heywood was an early fascist in England, well known plays are The Second Shepherds and play of the Wakefield Cycle. The independent appearance of farce in England began in the 16th century with the work of John Heywood.
3.1.7 MASQUES
This is a type of play with poetry, music, dance and songs and was popular in the 16th and 17th centuries. Masques were also popular during the reign of Henry VIII who established an office of revels in 1545.
3.1.8 THE TRANSFORMATION OF DRAMA
The Greco-Roman genesis of drama primarily evolved from religious rites/ceremonies with Dionysian ritual, symbolising tragedy (death) and comedy, which both flourished in Greek and Roman Empires until their superpowers collapse. Then drama travelled into other parts of Europe, re-evolving and getting transformed in the process, though still modelled on the Greek tragedies, which featured ghosts, tyrants and sensational themes of bloody murder, with revenge as a common motive.
In addition, from the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., theatrical history from the Byzantine Empire was based on Greek texts and information through Greek‟s information web or archive called the suda. With subsequent mingling and cross- cultural interactions, drama became part of the church, but when it was labeled „sinful‟, it moved out of the four walls of the church into the street. New plays were written but they were influenced by classical style, leading to the creation of Renaissance plays and theatres.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Outline how Drama evolved from the Greeks and Romans before moving to England.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have discussed how drama started from the Greeks through Rome to England. We have also talked about medieval religious and secular plays as well as how drama transformed in Medieval England. You may wish to go over your work again.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt:
. how drama evolved from the Greeks to Rome and to England;
. about medieval religious plays like mystery plays, miracle plays, and morality plays;
. the types of medieval secular plays there are;
. the various transformations that drama passed through.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
(1) Drama began as a form of ceremony and will end with the world performing. Discuss.
(2) Write short notes on:
(i) Mystery Plays (ii) Miracle Plays (iii) Morality Plays
(3) Briefly differentiate between Farces and Masques.
(4) Explain your understanding of the transformation of drama.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Bate, Kelth ed. (1976). Three Latin Comedies. Toronto: Centre for Medieval Studies.
Brockett, Oscar G. and Franklin J. Hildy (2003). History of the Theatre. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Cohen, Robert (2000). Theatre: Brief Edition. London: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Klaus, Carl H.; Gilbert Miriam and Bradford, S. Field (1991). Stages of Drama. New York: St. Martins Press.
Knight Alan (1983). Aspects of Genre in Late Medieval French Drama. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
McAlister, Linda (1996). Hypatias Daughters: 1500 of Women Philosophers. London: Hypatia Inc.
Nelson, Alan H. (1972). „ Some Configurations of Staging in Medieval English Drama‟ . In Taylor, Jerome and Nelson, Alan H. (Ed.) Medieval English Drama: Essays Critical and Contextual. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, PP. 116 – 47.
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