INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall examine possible structural problems of an English sentence. This is to say that we shall identify what can go wrong in a sentence, resulting in a sentence that does not convey the intended sense. The most common of such problems include wrong use of parallel structures, construction of sentences that lack one of the essential parts, wrong use or placement of modifiers which can lead to dangling modifiers, and situations where sentences have more than one interpretation.
3.1 Parallelism
‘When words or word groups perform the same function in the sentence, we say that they are in parallel form’ (Oluikpe, Iwundu and Ngwagba, 1981, p.103) Parallel forms are used for writing words or word groups of identical grammatical forms when they appear in a series. Parallel structures help to emphasise the grammatical and logical relationships of the ideas that are expressed. Also, parallel grammatical structures reinforce one’s thought by stressing the importance of the various sentence elements. Many of the famous phrases in English exemplify effective use of parallel structures as in the following examples:
1. Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people (three prepositional phrases)
2. What people value most are: life, liberty and happiness (three nouns)
3. Give me a helping hand or go away (two imperatives)
4. Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. (two infinitives, three adjectives)
5. I came, I saw, I conquered (three sentences).
6. To be or not to be, that is the question (two infinitives)
7. Friends, Brothers, Sisters let us reason together (three nouns).
To produce effective sentences containing parallel forms one must make verbs, nouns, pronouns, phrases and clauses appear in the same grammatical form and perform the same function in the sentence. This means that if the first noun is singular all the others must be singular; if the first verb is in present tense all the others must be in the present tense and if the first group is a phrase the other groups in the sentence must be phrases not clauses or infinitives. As shown in Examples 1 – 7 the nouns, phrases and sentences are so arranged that they function in a similar way in each sentence. Thus, both the grammatical and logical ideas are neatly tied up to make the sentence more effective.
Parallel structures help to emphasise the grammatical and logical relationships of the ideas that are expressed. Also, parallel grammatical structures reinforce ones thought by stressing the importance of the various sentence elements.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Correct the following sentences by putting the parallel structures in the same grammatical forms.
1. He likes singing, dancing and to drum.
2. One can travel to Kaduna by bus, by car or fly.
3. During the last S.S.C.E. examination the invigilator told us to write fast and that we should write on both sides of the paper.
4. Lamenting the loss of her father Ekaette said: Papa was a good father, a loving husband and worked hard.
5. Reading is a more rewarding hobby than to watch films.
3.2 Fragmentation
Fragmentation describes a situation where one of the essential parts of a sentence is absent. Often, the incomplete sentence is punctuated as if it were a complete sentence. It is easy to recognise a fragment since either the subject or the predicate is often missing (see section 4.2.2.). To ensure that one is not writing sentence fragments instead of sentences, it is important to read over every sentence or passage written and to ensure that each sentence has a subject and a predicate.
Another cause of fragmentation is the confusion between finite and non- finite verbs. Non-finite verbs are those which cannot occur alone as verb elements in clauses because they cannot take subjects and are invariable in the sense that they do not show tense distinction. They are infinitives (to go, to be) and participles (going, being, gone, been). Finite verbs on the other hand are full verbs which can occur as verb elements in clauses, take subjects and show tense distinctions (e.g. go, goes, went; am, is, was). Many times fragmentation results from a wrong choice of verb.
Examine the following:
8. Hoping to hear from you soon.
9. To control my temper always. This is my resolution.
10. In reply to your advertisement in the Pioneer of last week, requesting applications for the post of clerical assistants.
11. My brother sent me a present. Because I passed my examinations well last year.
The first example (No.8) is a fragment because it has no finite verb. The verb form in the group of words is a participle. It cannot take a subject since the form: I hoping to see you soon would not be an acceptable form unless ‘am’ is added to ‘I’. Similarly Nos. 9 and 10 are fragments, the verb form in 9 is to control, an infinitive; and the verb in No.10 requesting is also anon-finite form (participle).
Wrong punctuation can also result in fragmentation. This can be seen in Nos. 9 and 10 where the use of the semi – colon or colon after the word ‘always’ rather than the full stop in No.9 and the comma after the word ‘assistants’ in No.10 could be the acceptable options. Alternatively, each of the two sentence fragments could have been written as one complex sentence.
In learned and mannered style, fragments are sometimes used for sudden dramatic effect. They also occur in colloquial style which characterises everyday conversation as in the following:
12. So far, so good;
13. The sooner, the better;
14. I shall not go back. Never.
15. A fool does not only fail to understand but also fails to know that he does not know. And there is astonishment on his face when told that he is ignorant!
Ordinarily, it is better to avoid sentence fragments when writing. Rather than use fragments a variety of sentence types including exclamatory sentences could be used for dramatic effect.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Make the fragments full sentences in the following:
1. Be seeing you later.
2. Who has seen the car? Neither you nor I.
3. I refused to vote for that political party. The leader being very corrupt.
4. To err is human. To forgive divine.
5. With kind personal regards
6. How are you? Hope fine.
7. What about your brothers and sisters?
8. During the symposium there were many activities. Presentation of papers, a cocktail party and a gala night.
9. I do not go out these days because I am busy. Cooking, cleaning sewing and reading.
10. Although Nigeria is one nation. There is need for resource control.
Note, however, that some of the fragments are acceptable in the context of speech or conversation.
3.3 Dangling Modifiers
Modifiers are said to dangle when they are not consistent with the subject – predicate relationship in the sentence. This means that the action attributed to the subject of the sentence cannot normally be performed by the subject as in the following sentence:
16. Sitting in the Convocation Park, a motor cycle flew past.
Knowledge of sentence structure would make one regard the motor cycle as the subject of the sentence and the performer of the action of sitting but common sense tells us that a motor cycle cannot sit. The phrase sitting in the Convocation Park therefore dangles because it does not logically relate to the subject of the sentence ‘motor cycle’. Examine the following:
17. Running to the notice board, my scores and grades were seen.
18. Feeling completely exhausted, abed was needed.
19. Meeting Akon for the first time, her mode of dressing repelled me.
Note that there is no logical relationship between the italicised words and the subjects in each case. The sentences can be re-written thus:
17a. Running to the noticeboard, I saw my scores and grades.
18a. Feeling completely exhausted, I decided I needed abed rest.
19a. Meeting Akon for the first time, I was repelled by her mode of
dressing.
3.3.1 Causes of Dangling Modifiers
Dangling modifiers result from a number of factors. One factor is the wrong use of the passive voice as can be seen in Nos. 16, 17 and 18 above. Where one is in doubt, it is better to use the passive voice as in Nos. 17a, 18a, and 19a. Also participles which begin a sentence may dangle if not used carefully as the examples above show. There are however some participles that are often used impersonally. These include supposing, considering, assuming, and admitting. Since these words are used to mean that one
supposes
considers
assumes
admits
they do not become dangling modifiers.
20. Assuming that you finish your work in time, there is no reason why we would fail to catch the plane.
21. Admitting that she disobeyed her father, it is understandable why he beat her up.
The two sentences above do not contain dangling modifiers as they are taken to mean:
if one (assumes) …
(admits )
Another structure that often dangles is the past participle verb phrases. In the following examples, there are no logical relationships between the past participle verb and the subject.
22. Identified by the witnesses, his shame was boundless.
23. enounced and deserted by her children, her life became unbearable.
The sentences can be rewritten thus:
22a. Identified by the witness, the criminal’s shame was boundless.
23a. Denounced and deserted by her children, the woman’s life became unbearable.
It must be noted that for a modifier not to dangle, a subject of the sentence which is also modified by the modifier has to be named. In Nos. 22a and 23a, the criminal and the woman are the subjects which are modified by the italicised parts of the sentence.
Occasionally, infinitive phrases also dangle, as in the following examples:
24. To dowell in an examination, studying is necessary.
25. To have a successful get-together many guests are required.
26. To dowell in science courses, mathematics is necessary.
For the same reasons given above the above sentences should be revised and the subjects which are modified by the infinitive phrases above should be introduced as shown below:
24a. To do well in an examination the candidate must study.
25a. To have a successful get-together one should invite many guests. 26a. To do well in science courses one should be good in mathematics. The revised versions: Examples. 24a–26a have subjects which relate with the infinitive phrases. The subjects in these examples are italicised. Note that in each case writing the sentence in the active voice helps to correct the sentence with the dangling modifier.
Also, adjectival phrases dangle if not properly utilised in sentence construction. The following sentences exemplify this situation:
27. Disappointed with her daughter’s behaviour, a privilege was withdrawn.
28. Angry with the students, a suspension order was given
29. Content with the students’ performance, prizes were given.
Again for the same reasons earlier given the above sentences can be revised thus:
27a. Disappointed with her daughter’s behaviour, Mrs. Okon
withdrew the privilege of allowing her go out alone.
28a. Angry with the students, the school principal gave a suspension
order.
29a. Content with the students’ performance, the Vice-Chancellor
gave them prizes.
The main issue in all the cases so far discussed is that the modifying phrases must relate logically to the subject in the main clause which must be named. The understanding is that the subject must be the one who performs the action in the modifying phrase or clause or about whom the information in the modifying clause is given. When there is any indication that the information in the modifying clause cannot relate to the subject, then the modifier dangles.
In some passive sentences, the subject can be situated at the end of the sentence to make for complete meaning and logical connection. E.g. No.
28 can be written as:
Angry with the students, a suspension order was given by the principal.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
Correct the following sentences by ensuring that the modifiers have subjects and do not therefore dangle.
1. Caught with the stolen vehicle, the policeman arrested Etim (who was caught?).
2. Having entered the house, the robbery was carried out (who entered the house?)
3. To live well in the rural area, money is necessary (who will live well?)
4. After seeing the doctor, the fever went down (who saw the doctor?)
5. Angry at not being recognised, revenge was planned (who was angry?).
6. After condemning his lateness, he was suspended (who condemned lateness?).
7. Entering the bus, his briefcase was snatched from him (who entered the bus?)
8. Having rested for sometime, the headache was gone (who rested?)
9. Arriving home at last, my dinner was nowhere to be found (who arrived?)
10. Surprised at seeing his name among the successful candidates, a party was immediately thrown (who was surprised?).
3.4 Ambiguity
A sentence is ambiguous if it is capable of more than one interpretation and therefore has more than one meaning. Although one can be deliberately ambiguous especially in creative writing for a particular effect, ambiguity is a feature of poor sentence construction. It should therefore be avoided. Ambiguity occurs as a result of wrong placement of words, phrases and clauses in a sentence. To avoid ambiguity it is important to take the following steps when constructing sentences.
(a) Adverbs should be placed near the words they modify:
In this regard, the following adverbs are likely to present problems: early, only, almost, hardly, scarcely, just, even and quite. Examine the following sentences which are ambiguous:
30. She only described what happened.
31. Those who watched the television programme scarcely criticised it.
The first example No.30 could mean that she was the only one who described what happened or that she described only what happened and nothing else. If the first meaning is intended the sentence should read:
30a. Only she described what happened. If on the other hand the second meaning is intended the sentence should read as in No.30 above.
Similarly, in No.31 the adverb scarcely could modify ‘watched’ to mean those who did not watch it often enough or it could modify ‘criticised’
to mean ‘hardly ever. If the first meaning is intended the adverb should be placed before the verb watch as follows:
31a. Those who scarcely watched the television programme criticised
it.
Modifying phrases and clauses should be placed immediately after the words they modify. The following is ambiguous because of the wrong placement of the modifying clause:
32. The girl in the bus that had an accident … arrived finally.
Note that usually, ambiguity occurs when a modifying prepositional phrase and a relative clause have a common antecedent. In the example above, that accepts both human and non-human nouns and can refer to both ‘girl’ and ‘bus’. If that is replaced by who it will refer to the girl. If on the other hand it is replaced with which it will refer to the bus as in the following:
32a. The girl in the bus, who had an accident, arrived finally.
32b. The girl in the bus which had an accident arrived finally.
It is also important to watch the number of the antecedents, that is,
whether they are singular or plural. Examine the following:
32c. The girls in the bus have just had an accident … (girl)
32d. The girl in the bus that has just had an accident … (bus)
A single pronoun should not refer to two males, two females, two things or two groups as in the following:
33. Mrs. Okon told her sister that she was not going to the market anymore.
In the above example, ‘she’ refers to both Mrs. Okon and her sister. Some writers try to resolve such problems by using rather awkward structures such as:
33a. Mrs. Okon told her sister that she (Mrs. Okon) was not going to
the market anymore.
The sentence can be restructured to resolve the ambiguity thus:
Either
33b. When Mrs. Okon realised that she was not going to the market
anymore, she told her sister.
33c. Mrs. Okon told her sister not to go to the market anymore.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4
Resolve the following ambiguities by reconstructing the sentence to have one meaning at a time:
1. Esther told her mother that she was going mental.
2. If the baby does not like the milk, boil it.
3. He removed the plate from the table and washed it.
4. Mercy only listens to the best in classical music.
5. Before the nurses start treating chickenpox patients they are often inoculated.
6. I found out the problem with my radio set in the office.
7. Visiting grandmothers can be boring.
8. The stern face of the lady sitting on the veranda which was cold and uninviting repelled me.
9. The passenger in the bus that has just moved is going to Abuja.
10. Can I have the glasses, please? Parallel forms are used for writing words or word groups of identical grammatical forms when they appear in a series.
4.0 CONCLUSION
When structural problems occur in an English sentence, such as those discussed in this unit, the result is a sentence that conveys the wrong meaning. The relationships between words performing various functions constitute the major source of structural errors. It is therefore essential to pay utmost attention to such relationships to ensure correct sentence constructions.
5.0 SUMMARY
You have learnt the following about some English sentences from this unit:
i.One thing or the other can go wrong in a sentence resulting in a sentence that does not convey the intended sense.
ii. The most common of such problems include wrong use of parallel structures; construction of sentences that lack one of the essential parts, wrong use or placement of modifiers which can lead to dangling modifiers and situations where sentences have more than one interpretation.
iii. Modifiers are said to dangle when they are not consistent with the subject - predicate relationship in the sentence. This means that the action attributed to the subject of the sentence cannot normally be performed by the subject.
iv. Parallel forms are used for writing words or word groups of identical grammatical forms when they appear in a series.
v.Parallel structures help to emphasise the grammatical and logical relationships of the ideas that are expressed.
vi. Also, parallel grammatical structures reinforce one’sthought by stressing the importance of the various sentence elements.
vii. Fragmentation describes a situation where one of the essential parts of a sentence is absent.
viii. It is easy to recognise a fragment since either the subject or the predicate is often missing.
ix. Dangling modifiers result from the wrong use of the passive voice, participles and infinitives.
x.A sentence is ambiguous if it is capable of more than one interpretation and therefore has more than onemeaning.
xi.Ambiguity occurs as a result of wrong placement of words, phrases and clauses in a sentence.
ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
1. He likes singing, dancing and drumming.
2. One can travel to Kaduna by bus, by car or by air.
3. During the last S.S.C.E. examination the invigilator told us to write fast and to write on both sides of the paper.
4. Lamenting the loss of her father Ekaette said: Papa was a good father, a loving husband and a hard worker.
5. Reading is a more rewarding hobby than watching films.
ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
1. I’ll see you late
2. Who has seen the car? Neither you nor I have seen it.
3. I refused to vote for that political party. The leader is very corrupt.
4. To err is human. To forgive is divine.
5. Please accept this gift with kind personal regards.
ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
1. Having been caught with the stolen vehicle, the policeman arrested Etim.
2. The robbers having entered the house, the robbery was carried out.
3. For anyone to live well in the rural area, money is necessary.
4. After seeing the doctor, the fever went down (who saw the doctor?)
5. His mother, angry at not being recognised, planned a revenge.
6. After condemning his lateness, the principal suspended him.
7. On entering the bus, Peter’s briefcase was snatched from him.
8. Having rested for sometime, the patient’s headache was gone.
9. On arriving home at last, I found that dinner was nowhere to be found
10. Surprised at seeing his name among the successful candidates, John immediately threw a party.
ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4
Resolving Ambiguities
1. Esther told her mother that she (Esther/her mother) was going mental.
2. If the baby does not like the milk, boil the milk.
3. He removed the plate from the table and washed the table/the plate.
4. Mercy only listens to the best in classical music. (Mercy alone/classical musicalone).
5. Before the nurses start treating chickenpox patients they (the nurses) are often inoculated.
6. I found out the problem with my radio set while I was in the office.
7. Paying visits to grandmothers can be boring.
8. The stern face of the lady sitting on the veranda repelled me/The veranda which was cold and uninviting repelled me.
9. The passenger in the bus which has just moved is going to Abuja.
10. Can I have the drinking glasses, please?
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Identify parallel structures in the following extract and comment on their effect on the text.
Perhaps, it is easy for those who have never felt the stinging darts of segregation to say “Wait”. But when you have seen vicious mobs lynch your mothers and fathers at will and drown your sisters and brothers at whim; when you have seen hate-filled policeman curse, kick and even kill your black brothers and sisters; when you see the vast majority of your twenty million Negro brothers smothering in the air-tight cage of poverty in the midst of an affluent society; when you suddenly find your tongue twisted and your speech stammering as you seek to explain to your six year old daughter why she cannot go to the public amusement park that has just been advertised on television and see tears welling up in her eyes when she is told that Funtown is closed to coloured children, and see ominous clouds of inferiority beginning to form in her little mental sky, and see her beginning to distort her personality by developing an unconscious bitterness toward white people; when you have to concoct an answer for a five year-old son who is asking: “Daddy, why do white people treat coloured people so mean?” When you take a cross country drive and find it necessary to sleep night after night in the uncomfortable corners of your automobile because no motel will accept you; when you are humiliated day in and day out by nagging signs reading “white” and “coloured”; when your first name becomes “nigger” your middle name “boy” (however old you are) and your last name becomes “John” and your wife and mother are never given the respected title “Mrs.”; when you are harried by day and haunted by night by the fact that you are a negro … then you will understand why we find it difficult to wait.
(Adapted from: Martin Luther King, Jr. Letter from Birmingham Jail)
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Eka, D. (1996). Elements of Grammar and Mechanics of English. Uyo: Samuf Educational.
Eka, D. (ed) (1993). Fundamentals of Communication in English.
Calabar: BON Universal Ltd.
Iwundu, M. C., Oluikpe, B. and Ngwaba, F. E. (1981). Clarity. In Oluikpe, B. O. A. (Ed.) The Use of English for Higher Education Onitsha, AFRICANA FEP, 103- 124.
Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. (1980). A University Grammar of English. London: Longman.
Udofot, I. and Ekpenyong, B. (2004). A Comprehensive English Course for Schools and Colleges. Lagos: Quantum Co. Ltd.
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