INTRODUCTION
Apart from links within sentences, linking occurs between sentences in English. Certain factors interact in pointing to links between sentences. These are:
•implied semantic relationships; that is, links that sentences of a certain paragraph have to the main idea and to one another;
•lexical equivalence: a relationship shown in successive sentences through the equivalence in the vocabulary (lexical items) used, as, for instance, in the repetition of words or phrases;
•syntactic devices: alternative grammatical ways of referring to the same thing, as, for instance reference to man as he; and
•by the use of transitional words (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1975, p.287). In the following passage from Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, there are semantic as well as syntactic links between sentences:
Okonkwo was well known in the six villages and even beyond. His fame rested on solid personal achievements. As a young man of eighteen, he had brought honour to his village by throwing Amalinze the Cat. Amalinze was a great wrestler who for seven years was unbeaten from Umuofia to Mbaino. He was called the Cat because his back would never touch the earth.
(Achebe, 1975,p.5).
The central idea of the passage is Okonkwo’s fame. The sentences are each linked to this central idea. Lexical equivalents are seen in the words and phrases repeated at times in other words: ‘well known’ and ‘fame’ are near equivalents; ‘the Cat’ suggests Amalinze’s expertise in wrestling. The second and third sentences are further explanations of the first while the fourth and fifth further explain the third.
Syntactic devices used in the passage also include the pronoun ‘his’ and ‘he’ used instead of Amalinze and Okonkwo, while the clause, ‘his back would never touch the earth’ explains why Amalinze was unbeaten. Such relatedness in meaning creates links between sentences dealing with a particular point (Udofot, 1993,p.140).
3.1 Transitional Words
Other syntactic devices used in connecting sentences are commonly referred to as transitional words. These (transitional words) connect sentences and independent clauses of a compound sentence. Examples of transitional words are: ‘first, next, then, finally, formerly, earlier, here, there furthermore, similarly, nevertheless, consequently’ . Sometimes the connection is effected with a group of words like ‘in fact, on the other hand, on the contrary, above all’. The following sentences are linked using transitional words:
1. First, he made his excuses himself. Next, he sent explanatory notes. Finally, he did not bother to explain.
Where the transitional words form part of the independent clause that they introduce, they are always preceded by a semi-colon and apart from time and place, they indicate ideas like additions, enumerations, summations, consequences, concessions, contrasts. We will now examine the above cases individually.
3.2 Time Relationships
Time relationships between sentences can be signaled by temporal adjectives, adverbials or by tense, aspect and modality in verbs. There are three major divisions of time relationships:
(a) Previous to a given time reference
Adjectives: earlier,former, previous and preceding can be used to signal this.
2. He submitted a good assignment. His previous assignments were all poor (previous to the good one).
Adverbials: already, as yet, before, earlier,first,formerly, previously, so far, yet …
3. I will tell you what happened, but first, sit down (before I tell you what happened).
(b) Simultaneous with given time reference
Adjectives: contemporary, simultaneous.
4. The news was heard on Akwa Ibom Radio. A simultaneous announcement was made on the Network news (simultaneous with the AKBC News).
Adverbials: at present, at this point, meanwhile, in the meantime, now, presently, then.
5. Many of the cult members have been arrested. Meanwhile, the police are continuing their investigations in the recent killings on Campus (at the same time as the arrests are being made).
(c) Subsequent to given time reference
Adjectives:following, later, next:
6. I saw him on Friday and he appeared to be in perfect health. The following day, he died (following the Friday just mentioned).
Adverbials: afterwards, again, immediately, later, next, since, then, after that.
7. The Vice-Chancellor attended Senate Meeting. He later went to the state function. (after Senate meeting).
3.3 Place Relationships
Words denoting place relationships also play a part in sentence connection. Some place adverbs include here, there, where as for instance in:
8. All my friends have been to Lagos at least once. I am going there next long vacation.
3.4 Enumeration
Enumerations conjuncts indicate a listing of what is being said. Some of the common ones are: first, furthermore, finally, far more importantly, above all, on top of it all, last but not the least. These can be so arranged to mark particular positions as in first(ly), second(ly), third(ly) and finally. At other times ascending and descending order of importance can be shown as in first …, secondly and more importantly … above all.
The enumerations maybe expressed in a more integrated way as in:
9. Let me begin by saying … I would like to conclude by saying ….
3.5 Addition
The addition relationship is often affected by the use of additive conjuncts such as: also, equally as in the following
10. This food tastes good. Also it looks attraction.
11. The striking workers and the government have made no progress in the negotiations. The workers are bent on getting all that they wanted. Equally the government is sticking to her guns.
Additive conjuncts specify that part of the sentence is an addition to what has been previously said.
12. The children read the play. They acted it too
13. He didn’t travel anymore. Neither did she.
Either, neither and nor require that the two sentences they link be negative. Too, on the other hand requires both sentences that are linked to be positive.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
In the following sentences A and B use either, neither, nor and too where necessary.
A.
The children didn’t eat the food.
B. They didn’t drink the water.
A.
The children didn’t eat the food.
B. They also didn’t drink the wine.
A.
The children didn’t eat the food.
B. They didn’t drink the tea.
A.
The children ate the food.
B. They drank the water.
3.6 Summation
The final part of a unit may generalise or sum up what preceded. This is often effected by the use of such words as in brief, in summary, in all (summative conjuncts and style disjuncts) as in:
14. The ideas discussed are useful. Attention is given to oral drill.
Each chapter contains a lot of exercises for practice. In brief, the book is well written and very useful to English teachers.
Summation can also be achieved with integrated expressions like:
I will like to conclude by … I will sum up by ….
3.7 Consequence
Several result conjuncts indicate that a sentence expresses the consequence or result of what was said before:
15. I don’t use the book on weekends; so you can borrow it.
16. My car broke down; as a result, I missed the lecture.
Integrated indications include the result is that … the
consequence (of that) was …
3.8 Inference
An inferential conjunct can indicate a deduction from what is implicit in the preceding sentence or sentences. In the two examples that follow, the second sentence is an inference from the first:
17. A I’m afraid I cannot help you.
18. BIn other words you do not care.
19. A She is going to marry my brother.
20. BIn that case, she should relate well with his relations
3.9 Concession
Concessive conjuncts signal the surprising nature of what is being said in view of what was said before. These include: however, still, besides as in:
21. He was in his study for a few hours. He has however done a lot of work.
22. The holiday was very short; still it afforded me enough rest.
23. I did not send my friend an invitation. Besides she wouldn’t have come.
Most of the conjuncts that signal concession can be paraphrased by a subordinate clause of concession introduced by though or although. The first pair of examples above can be rephrased as follows:
21a. Though he was in his study for a few hours, he did a lot of work.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
1. Rephrase Nos. 22 and 23 by introducing a subordinate clause of concession as in 21a
2. Write three sentences of your own using the pattern of No. 21a above.
3.10 Contrast
A contrast is often indicated by antithetic conjuncts. On the contrary, indicates that the opposite is true.
24. I did not send her away; on the contrary I persuaded her to stay. The other conjuncts which signal contrast introduce a comparison or contrast without denying what went before:
25. He’s rather foolish. By comparison, his sister is very brilliant.
On the other hand often suggests contrast especially when it is the second of a correlative pair as in:
26. You should be firm. On the other hand you shouldn’tbe too difficult.
Instead also involves a contrast though it often also suggests a replacement, as in:
27. She doesn’t study at all; instead she spends her time in beauty saloons.
28. He wanted a radio for his birthday; his father bought him a clock instead.
3.11 Structural Parallelisms
Links between sentences can also be realized through similarity in sentence structure as in the following examples:
29. She admired my mother. My father irritated her.
30. My hobby is reading; hers is writing.
Such structural parallelisms are common in mannered and literary styles. They are however often reinforced by lexical equivalence and implications of semantic relationships, usually those of contrast.
3.12 Conjuncts and Disjuncts
3.13 Conjuncts
Conjuncts are adverb phrases or prepositional phrases (not conjunctions) which are used in sentence connection. Examples of the use of conjuncts are given below together with a list of common conjuncts grouped according to their sub classes:
31. I would like you to do two things for me. First phone my house and tell them I’ll be late. Secondly, order a taxi to be here in about one hour.
32. It was a difficult test. Nevertheless he passed it with a credit.
33. He doesn’t need any help from you. On the contrary, he can give us a loan.
Conjuncts are used for special effects (see the section on transitional words).
The normal position for most conjuncts is initial. They are usually separated from what follows by a pause in speech or a comma in writing. In other positions they may be enclosed in commas. Medial and final positions are rare for conjuncts. Those that readily appear finally include anyhow, anyway, otherwise. The last two frequently appear medially.
3.14 Disjuncts
Disjuncts are structures mostly prepositional phrases or clauses which convey the speaker’s comment. Disjuncts are of two main types: style disjuncts comment on what is said stating in some way the conditions under which one is talking. Attitudinal disjuncts on the other hand comment on the content of the communication.
3.14.1 Style Disjuncts
34. Very frankly, I don’t like this food.
35. Seriously, do you intend togo?
36. Strictly speaking, nobody is allowed to enter this room.
Other examples are: personally, if I may say so, to be precise.
Some adverbs can also be used as style disjuncts. These include: bluntly, briefly, candidly, confidentially,frankly, honesty, generally.
Style disjuncts usually appear initially. For some adverbs phrases which
function as style disjuncts there are equivalent structures. For example frankly can also be expressed as: Frankly speaking, they have no
chance.
We can have the following equivalent structures:
prepositional phrase - in all frankness
frankly, to put it frankly;
-ing participle phrase – frankly speaking
-ed participle phrase – putting it frankly
– put frankly
finite verb clause – if I maybe frank, if I can put it frankly.
The adverbs listed above as style disjuncts can also have equivalent structures with participle constructions e.g.
bluntly – bluntly speaking –
honestly – honestly speaking –
3.14.2 Attitudinal Disjuncts
Attitudinal disjuncts convey the speaker’s comment on the content of what he is saying. They generally feature in declarative sentences:
37. Obviously, nobody expected me today.
38. Of course, you will have to pay your debt.
39. She wisely stayed at home today.
Common attitudinal disjuncts include:
Understandably, to our surprise/surprisingly, to be sure, more importantly/even more important, unfortunately, rightly …
Many of the adverb phrases can be paraphrased by constructions in which the adjective is subject complement expressing an attribute of the subject as in the following:
40. Unfortunately, Mary missed the lecture
= That Mary missed the lecture was unfortunate = It was unfortunate that Mary missed the lecture.
Other forms of paraphrases like the ones below are also possible:
41. Rightly, he rejected the appointment.
= It was right for him to reject the appointment.
42. To our regret, Okon rejected the offer.
= We regretted that Okon rejected the offer.
Common adverbs often used as attitudinal disjuncts are given below together with the meanings they convey:
Group I: The disjuncts in this group express the speaker’s comment on the extent to which he believes that what he is saying is true:
Certainly, he has no right to be there (I am certain)
He has probably left by now (I consider it probable …)
Definitely, I will pass my examinations (I cannot fail).
Obviously, they were not invited (It is obvious tome and to everybody else).
Apparently, he is the new principal (It seems so).
Group II: The disjuncts in this group make comments other than on the truth-value of what is said. Some convey the attitude of the speaker
without reference to the subject of the sentence as in:
Fortunately, Mary has returned my pen.
Other similar disjuncts include: curiously, annoyingly, happily,
hopefully, luckily, preferably.
Other disjuncts in this category convey the speaker’s attitude with an
implication that the judgment applies to the subject of the sentence as in:
43. Wisely, Mary did not attend the meeting.
This implies that the speaker considers Mary’s action wise. Other such disjuncts include: rightly, wrongly, foolishly.
Adverbs with an –ing participle base such as surprisingly are also very useful as attitudinal disjuncts. Attitudinal disjuncts can appear in almost any position but most of them appear initially.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
Replace the disjuncts in the Sentences 41- 43 with other disjuncts.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Well connected sentence constructions are realisable through a correct understanding and appropriate use of linking devices in English as discussed in this unit.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt the following:
•Apart from links within sentences linking occurs between sentences in English. These can be effected through implied semantic relationships, lexical equivalence, syntactic devices and transitional words.
•Some syntactic devices used in connecting sentences are commonly referred to as transitional words. These (transitional words) connect sentences and independent clauses of a compound sentence.
•Transitional words express ideas such as: time and place relationships, additions, enumerations, concession, summation, contrasts, inference and consequence.
•Many transitional words are referred to as conjuncts and disjuncts.
•Disjuncts are mostly prepositional phrases or clauses which convey the speaker’s comment.
•Disjuncts are of two main types: style disjuncts which comment on what is said stating in some way the conditions under which one is talking.
•Attitudinal disjuncts on the other hand comment on the content of the communication.
•Conjuncts are adverb phrases or prepositional phrases (not
conjunctions) which are used in sentence connection.
•Conjuncts are used for special effects.
ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
In the following sentences use either, neither, nor and too where necessary.
A. The children didn’t eat the food. B. They didn’t drink the water either A. The children didn’t eat the food. B. They also didn’t drink the wine.
A. The children didn’t eat the food. B. Neither did they drink the tea.
A. The children ate the food. B. They drank the water too.
ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
1. Rephrase Nos. 22 and 23 by introducing a subordinate clause of concession as in 21a
22a Though the holiday was very short; still it afforded me
enough rest.
23a Unfortunately I did not send my friend an invitation. Even
then, she wouldn’t have come.
2. Write three sentences of your own using the pattern of No21a above.
Any three sentences with a concessive adjunct following the pattern of No. 21a are acceptable
ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
Replace the conjuncts in the Sentences 41- 43 with other conjuncts
41. I would like you to do two things for me. First phone my house and tell them I’ll be late. Next, order a taxi to be here in about one hour.
42. It was a difficult test. All the same he passed it with a credit.
43. He doesn’t need any help from you. On the other hand, he can give us a loan
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. What are transitional words? What roles do they play in sentence connection?
2. Write a paragraph of five compound or compound complex sentences appropriately connected with sentence connectors.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Achebe, C. (1958). Things Fall Apart. London: Heinemann.
Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. (1980). A University Grammar of English, London: Longman.
Udofot, I. and Ekpenyong, B. (2004). A Comprehensive English Course for Schools and Colleges. Lagos: Quantum Co. Ltd.
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