SOME CONSTRAINTS IN ANALYSING ENGLISH SYLLABLES

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 Some constraints in syllabification, such as the sonority hierarchy, influence the way consonants operate at the periphery of a syllable. Syllabification involves dividing a word into syllables according to universal and language-specific rules, like the Maximal Onset Principle and sonority hierarchy.

 Maximal Onset Principle

The Maximal Onset Principle determines underlying syllable division. It asserts that intervocalic consonants are maximally assigned to syllable onsets based on universal and language-specific conditions, as seen in the example of the English word "diploma," which follows the division di.plo.ma according to the Maximal Onset Principle. English permits complex syllables with up to three consonants at the beginning and occasionally up to four at the end, as in words like "string," "splash," "prompts," or "sixths."

 Complex Onsets and Codas

Complex onsets and codas in English refer to syllables containing more than one consonant. A string of consonants at the beginning or end of a syllable is called a consonant cluster, illustrated in examples like "broughams," "crunched," "scratched," and others.

 Self-Assessment Exercise 1

Pronounce the provided words aloud, making an effort to avoid inserting a vowel sound within the consonant clusters.

 3.2 Derived and Non-Derived Consonant Clusters

Derived consonant clusters often arise from grammatical combinations, such as a noun becoming an adjective (e.g., "six" becomes "sixth"). To navigate pronunciation challenges with such clusters, consider the following facts.

 Inflectional Endings

Inflection refers to grammatical changes at the endings of English words. This unit briefly explores the various suffixes used for inflection, emphasizing their implications for spoken English. Students will be trained to recognize and correctly pronounce sounds forming such inflections.

 Pronunciation of the Plural Marker

In writing, plurality is typically indicated by the marker "s." However, this suffix can be pronounced as (-s), (-z), or (-iz).

 Pronunciation of the Past Tense Marker

To ensure accurate pronunciation, follow these guidelines for identifying the sound representing the past tense element in specific phonetic environments:

1. If the sound before the past tense marker is a vowel or a voiced consonant, as in "hurried" and "bagged," pronounce the past-tense element as (-d), as in /h Λ ri:d/ and /bae gd/.

2. If the sound preceding the past tense marker is a voiceless consonant, as in "passed" and "kicked," pronounce the past tense marker as (-t), as shown in the transcriptions of "passed" - /pas:st/ and "kicked" - /kikt/.

3. If the consonant before the past tense marker is either /t/ or /d/, as in "started" and "landed," pronounce the past tense element as (-id).

The above explanation is further represented in the classifications in the box below.

Remember that the past simple tense and past participle of all regular verbs end in -ed. For example:

- Base verb (v1): work

- Past simple (v2): worked

- Past participle (v3): worked

Additionally, many adjectives made from the past participle end in -ed. For example:

- I like painted furniture.

 How to Pronounce -ed

The answer is: In three ways - / Id/ or / t/ or / d/

If the base verb ends in one of these sounds:

| Example Base Verb | Example with -ed | Pronounce the -ed | Extra Syllable? |

|--------------------|-------------------|-------------------|------------------|

| Unvoiced /t/ | want | wanted | / id / | yes |

| Voiced /d/ | end | ended | | |

| Unvoiced /p/ | hope | hoped | /t/ | no |

| /f/ | laugh | laughed | | |

| /s/ | fax | faxed | | |

| /S/ | wash | washed | | |

| /tS/ | watch | watched | | |

| /k/ | like | liked | | |

| Voiced, all other sounds | play | played | /d/ | |

Note that it is the sound that is important, not the letter or spelling.

 Exceptions

The following -ed words used as adjectives are pronounced with /Id/:

- aged

- dogged

- ragged

- blessed

- learned

- wicked

- crooked

- naked

- wretched

Now, carefully listen to the pronunciation of the following pairs of words:

 Consonant + d / t

- lagged / lacked

- halved / laughed

- nabbed / napped

English syllables sometimes present articulation challenges for Nigerian speakers of English. While there are no significant differences between the consonant systems of RP and Educated Spoken Nigerian English, certain points are noteworthy:

- Morpheme-final "g" is not necessarily deleted after /ŋ/ except in -ing forms.

- /b/ is commonly pronounced after /m/ in words like 'bomb' and 'comb.'

- Epenthetic vowels are inserted before final syllabic consonants, so 'cattle' is pronounced /katul/.

- In the northern variety, most consonant clusters break up with epenthetic vowels.

- In 'with' and 'smooth,' the final consonant is often /θ/ and not /ð/.

- Dental fricatives [θ, ð] are often pronounced as /t, d/, while the /tʃ/ sound is often pronounced /ʃ/.

 3.3 Syllabic Consonants

A syllabic consonant typically behaves as a consonant but can fill a vowel slot in a syllable. Examples include the final nasals /n/ in /pattern/ and /m/ in /bottom/.

 Self-Assessment Exercise 2

Write the syllable structure of the following words:

- prince

- queen

- style

- drilled

- rhymed

 4.0 Conclusion

The English syllable encompasses various sound combinations pronounced between breath pauses. While these sounds appear systematically in words, some consonant clusters in a syllable can present articulatory challenges, which regular practice can help overcome.

 5.0 Summary

Consonant clusters at the end of certain English words often challenge pronunciation for Nigerian language learners. However, developing the ability to distinguish between pronunciation and written form is crucial.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Bamgbose, A. (1995). English in the Nigerian Environment. In

Bamgbose et al (ed). New Englishes: A West African

Perspective, Ibadan: Mosuro, pp 9 – 26.

Elugbe, B. (2000). Oral English for Schools and Colleges. Ibadan:

Heinemann Educational books.

Kreidler, C. W. (1989). The Pronunciation of English. Oxford:

Blackwell.

Ladefoged, P. (1993). A Course in Phonetics. 3rd Publishers. Ed. New

York: Harcourt Brace College

O’Connor, J.D. (1989). Better English Pronunciation. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press

http://www.ex.ac.uk/-bosthause/Lecture/hockett.htm