INTONATION IN SPOKEN ENGLISH

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 Definition of Intonation:

Intonation, as per Jones (1977), refers to the variations in pitch occurring in connected speech. It signifies the melody of spoken English influenced by changing voice pitch, partly determined by stress. Roach (1992) echoes this definition, stating intonation has two distinct meanings: (1) limited to pitch variations conveying or altering meaning, and (2) in a broader sense, akin to prosody, encompassing voice quality, tempo, and loudness variations.

Interestingly, intonation holds significance in all languages. While many Nigerian languages use it to differentiate words with the same spelling, in spoken English, intonation imparts special meaning to an utterance, be it a word, phrase, or sentence. It can express doubt, certainty, disbelief, interest, or indifference.

In responses to questions, a speaker's intonation, whether falling or rising, conveys different shades of meaning. A falling tone indicates a strong affirmation with no doubt, while a rising tone suggests some reservation.

 The Role of Pitch in Intonation:

Pitch, defined as the relative height of speech sounds, determines the perceived "high" or "low" quality of a voice. The varying pitch levels throughout an utterance create intonation, manifested as the "falling" or "rising" of the voice (Cruttenden, 1986: 4). Prominence, on the other hand, is what makes a word stand out, such as the emphasized "I" in "I am" compared to the emphasized "am" in "I am" as a response.

English, being strongly stressed, accentuates certain syllables for relative prominence and loudness, while others remain unaccentuated or unstressed. Dictionaries typically mark accentuated syllables with an apostrophe-like (') sign either before or after the stressed syllable.

A general rule for two-syllable words in English, whether nouns or adjectives, is that the first syllable is stressed; for verbs, it's the second syllable. According to Awonusi (2001: 141), understanding the "relative pitch characteristics of intonation [requires] identifying intonation tunes or contours." Intonation tunes, also called nuclear tunes, represent accentual patterns on sentences, with five tunes in English: fall, rise, fall-rise, rise-fall, and level. Detailed discussions on these tunes will follow in the next unit.

In the phrase "That was the best thing you could have done!" all syllables are unstressed, except "best" and "done," which are stressed. "Best" carries more stress and serves as the nuclear syllable, conveying the main point.

The nuclear syllable, spoken more loudly, undergoes characteristic pitch changes. In examples like "John hadn't stolen that money," the emphasis shifts with changes in pitch, indicating different meanings. Similarly, in "I didn't tell her that," variations in pitch emphasize distinct nuances in meaning, such as the speaker denying, affirming, or providing additional context.

The nuclear syllable is spoken louder and undergoes a characteristic pitch change. Common pitch variations in English include rising and falling pitch, with occasional use of fall-rising or rise-falling pitch. In the English context, the interplay between falling and rising pitch plays a more significant role than in many other languages. Falling pitch indicates certainty, while rising pitch suggests uncertainty, crucially affecting meaning, especially in terms of polarity—falling pitch signifies 'polarity known,' while rising pitch indicates 'polarity unknown.' This distinction is fundamental to the rising pitch in 'yes/no' questions.

 Functions of Intonation:

 A) Grammatical Function:

i) Distinguishing between declarative and interrogative sentences, as seen in:

 You speak English (falling intonation for a declarative statement)

 You speak English (rising intonation for an interrogative statement)

ii) Disambiguating ambiguous written sentences, like 'Those who talk greatly make a mistake.' Intonation differences in speech clarify interpretations:

 Those who talk greatly / make a mistake. (Falling intonation: 'a mistake is made by those who talk greatly.')

 Those who talk greatly make a mistake. (Rising intonation: 'a mistake is greatly made by those who talk.')

Non-grammatical function:

Intonation distinguishes between expressions of feelings (often disgust or dissatisfaction) and facts, as demonstrated in the following sentences:

 I cheated … (rising intonation, expressing revulsion or anger at the accusation).

 I cheated …? (falling intonation, admitting a fact).

The non-grammatical function is also known as the attitudinal function of intonation, further illustrated in the discussion of the rising tune pattern.

 Discourse Function:

Intonation reveals the speaker's attitude, especially in discourse or conversation, conveying certainty, uncertainty, enthusiasm, boredom, and more through pitch changes. Listeners can discern subtle meanings in others' speech, detecting attitudes like unhappiness, tiredness, sarcasm, and more through fine variations in pitch and loudness. These nuances can be tested by asking someone to express different attitudes or emotions using only "mmmmm" — enthusiasm? Boredom? Uncertainty? Anger?

Analyzing variations in pitch objectively can be challenging, akin to distinguishing fine taste differences. Some listeners easily perceive pitch movements, while others find the distinctions almost impossible. Asking individuals to replicate predetermined rises or falls may be fruitless; it's more effective to have them express a certain attitude. Expressing finality or certainty often results in a fall, questioning prompts a rise, and uncertainty leads to a fall-rise.

Despite intonation being crucial in spoken English, it's represented crudely in written English through punctuation. Skilled writers convey meaning nuances through methods like adverbials:

 “How are you today?” he asked cheerfully (bitterly, wistfully, laconically).

 Conclusion:

When one speaks, the voice pitch naturally fluctuates, either rising or falling based on the intended meaning. These pitch variations are crucial because, without them, speech would sound monotonous. Intonation, at its core, involves adjusting the pitch of the voice in connected speech. In English, intonation holds such significance that it plays a vital role in spoken expressions, revealing a speaker's attitude towards their words or the listener.

 Summary:

This unit underscores the indispensability of intonation in spoken English, highlighting its synergy with stress to convey meaning in utterances. The application of intonation to an utterance involves the nuanced interplay of pitch and prominence, accurately describing the processes that contribute to effective communication.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Couper,K. (1986). An Introduction to English Prosody. London:

Edward Arnold.

Cruttenden, A. (2001). Intonation. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Elugbe, B. (2000). Oral English for Schools and Colleges. Ibadan:

Heinemann Educational books.

Jones, D. (1977). English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

http://www.ex.ac.uk/-bosthause/Lecture/hockett.htm

http://www.celt.stir.ac.uk/sta

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary