INTRODUCTION
By the end of this article, you should be able to:
1. Identify figures of speech used to communicate experiences or ideas in a poem.
2. Explain points of comparison in figurative expressions.
3. Discuss the aptness/effectiveness or lack thereof of figurative usage.
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MAIN CONTENT
Irony
Irony, a typical figure of speech in poetry, is defined by Hugh Holman as "a broad term referring to the recognition of a reality different from the masking reality" (42). In other words, it is a figure of speech in which the denotative, literal, or ordinary meaning of a word or expression is the direct opposite of the intended sense by the speaker or poet. You should identify this poetic device by closely observing the contexts in which ironic words or expressions are used in a poem.
For example, irony could manifest when a patently ugly event or object is described as beautiful/attractive. An unattractive person referred to as the most beautiful, a dwarf described as a palm tree or the African 'iroko,' or a hopeless situation said to be hopeful or cheering—all are examples of verbal irony. They illustrate how irony stands logic on its head through expression built upon a discrepancy between what is asserted and what is actually the case. We will now examine the opening lines of J.P. Clark's short poem, 'The Cleaners,' to illustrate how this type of irony works:
Look at the crew
Who after each disastrous race
Take over a public place
To wash it new.
They are themselves so full
Of muck ... ... (State of the Union, 5)
To start, the poem's title is ironic as it contradicts the expected moral quality of someone claiming to be a cleaner. The irony is heightened by "the crew," depicted as morally upright, in contrast to those responsible for the disastrous race that triggered their reaction. They aim to clean the political "Augean stable" while not being morally superior to those ousted.
As astute readers, you should recognize and appreciate this form of verbal duplicity, a hallmark of the ironist due to its apparent contradiction.
Moving on, there's a more complex irony where the persona or speaker acts as a well-meaning neutral figure expressing seemingly earnest ideas not to be taken literally. Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal" exemplifies this, as the persona suggests outrageous steps to end poverty. Explore this poem in a good anthology of English poetry.
Other irony forms include situational, cosmic, and dramatic, commonly used in dramatic works.
Paradox
Paradox is a statement that initially appears contradictory or senseless but, upon closer examination, holds much truth. As a poetic device, it often contains surprise or shock, revealing the potentials of words in poetry and literature. The truth in paradox is often realized against a religious or philosophical background. For instance, the concept of the Fortunate Fall, expressed by a medieval lyricist, may seem nonsensical literally but makes sense against the biblical backdrop of Man's fall and Christ's redemptive mission.
Likewise, John Donne's sonnet, 'Death Be not Proud,' contains a paradox fully appreciated with an understanding that death isn't a terrible end-all but a necessary interlude between existence in this world and the transition to the next.
Death be not proud, though some have called thee
Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not soe
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... why swell‘st thou then?
One short sleepe past, we wake eternally,
And death shall be no more; death, thou shalt die.
(quoted in Gardner 83)
The elements of contradiction and shock converge, presenting a classic example of a paradox. Initially, the notion that death is not mighty and dreadful may seem irrational until the poet provides compelling reasons to support this claim. The conclusion asserts that death is a necessary prelude to a person's resurrection, signaling the end or demise of death. This typical shock, arising from a newfound awareness of an inherent truth in an apparently absurd statement, is also expressed in a philosophical manner in the following poem by William Wordsworth titled '
My Heart Leaps Up':
My heart leaps up when I behold
A rainbow in the sky;
So it was when my life began;
So is it now I am aman;
So be when I shall grow old,
Or let me die!
The Child is father of Man;
And I could wish my days to be
Bound each to each by natural piety.
In this Romantic poem, the poet expresses the enduring philosophy that a child's potentials foreshadow what they will become at maturity. However, the way it is articulated may, on the surface, convey a ridiculous and contradictory impression that the child is actually the father of man. Only upon close scrutiny against the Romantic philosophy of the child's evolution, with all its positive and negative implications, is the embedded truth realized.
J.P. Clark also provides a fitting example of using paradox to reinforce poetic meaning in 'Letter from Kampala,' a piece conveying the familial sentiments of the persona on a journey away from home, as follows:
At this other end of Africa
It is of you alone
I think at home,
And the children:
I go further in order
To get home to you.
(A Decade of Tongues, 95)
Taken literally, the two last lines might appear to contradict the homesickness of a person missing his wife and children, as he deliberately moves farther away from home instead of reversing direction toward it. However, the truth in this seemingly absurd progression is that, to complete his journey and return to his family, the traveler must reach the farthest limit of his journey. Staying at the beginning of the journey will not achieve this.
Metonymy
Metonymy involves using an object or idea to represent or signify another closely associated thing, even if it is not necessarily an integral part of it. In this figure/trope, we commonly refer to "the king" as "the crown," an object closely associated with kingship but not organically part of the person of the king or royalty. Similarly, the "scythe" and the "spade" are employed to represent the peasantry closely associated with these two objects, as illustrated in the following examples:
The glories of our blood and state
Are shadows, not substantial things,
There is no armour against fate,
Death lays his icy hand on kings;
Sceptre and crown
Must tumble down,
And in the dust be equal made
With the poor crooked scythe and spade.
James Shirley, ‗The Glories of Our Blood and State‘
(Reeves 104)
Other examples are:
1. After much strife on the streets, the green berets were called in handle the situation (i.e. the soldiers).
2. The man who lives across the street goes after any skirt in the neighbourhood (any female).
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a person, place, or object is made to represent the whole, or conversely, the whole is made to represent a part. Similar to metonymy, this figure operates on the basis of association or relationship. However, unlike metonymy, the part is an integral component of the whole, as the whole often encompasses the part. For the synecdoche to be effective and clear, it must be based on a significant or main part of the whole and should be visibly associated with the topic being discussed or in focus. Examples include:
1. More hands are needed to execute the task (i.e., workmen).
2. The worker finds it difficult to cater for more mouths in his family (i.e., persons).
3. I gave commands;/And all smiles stopped together.
Simile
Simile is a figure of speech in which two things or actions are directly compared due to inherent qualities they share, even though they may be entirely different in other respects. The term refers to the similarities or similitude underlying the natures of the two objects or actions being compared, typically linked by the operative words 'like' or 'as.' Similar to a metaphor, a poet or writer's ability to see and effectively establish similitude in a simile between two apparently dissimilar things is considered a mark of genius, as long as the comparison remains fresh and striking. Consider the following examples and try your hand at creating as many fresh and striking examples as possible:
1. The youthful hue /Sits on thy skin like morning dew
2. My love is like a red, red rose/That‘s newly sprung in June
3. I cannot sleep
But my head just stops
Like a broken down car!
4. He talks endlessly,
And some of the things he says
Are painful and hurtful,
Like an unripe boil.
5. The roof sizzle at the waking touch,
Talkative like kettledrums
Tightened by the iron fingers of drought
Osundare, ‗Raindrum‘
Metaphor
A metaphor is a condensed simile where two similar entities are implicitly equated, dispensing with the comparative words "like" and "as." The similes above can be contracted into metaphors as follows:
1. The youthful hue is morning dew.
2. My love is a red rose that's newly sprung in June.
3. My head is a broken-down car.
4. And some of the things he says are an unripe boil.
5. The roof is talkative kettledrums.
Another example worth examining for its ingenious equation is "Beauty is but a flower which wrinkles will devour."
Personification
Personification is a figure of speech in which inanimate objects, animals, or abstract ideas are endowed with human form, character, or sensibilities. To personify an object or thing is to attribute human life or feelings to it. Heese and Lawton described it as "another kind of image where the 'something concrete' relates to human beings, while the 'something else' is not human" (83). Examples:
1.
Summer‘s lease hath all too short a date:
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimmed:
Shakespeare, ―Shall I Compare... (Reeves 62)
2. The keen wind Knifes through his Torn trousers
Licking his bruised knee
Witthrough fenile tongue
... ...
The small toe
On the left foot
Slowly weeps blood
(p‘Bitek, Song of Ocol 122)
3. Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness, Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;
Conspiring with him how to load and bless
With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eaves run
John Keats, ‗Ode to Autumn‘ (Reeves 211)
CONCLUSION
We have explored various figures of speech, providing relevant examples to enhance our understanding. Specifically, we discussed the following figures of speech: irony, paradox, metonymy, synecdoche, simile, metaphor, and personification.
SUMMARY
Understanding figures of speech enriches our comprehension of poetry, enabling us to decipher the intended meaning(s) of the poet. Irony, for instance, becomes clearer when we identify the context in which it is used. The paradox presents a seemingly senseless and perplexing worldview, often containing a vestige of surprise or shocking truth. Metonymy succinctly conveys extensive meanings using few words, where an object or element represents a whole. For example, 'green berets' refer to soldiers, while 'the crown' represents a king.