INTRODUCTION
By the end of this article, you should be able to:
- Identify figures of speech used to convey experiences or ideas in a poem
- Explain the point of comparison in figurative expressions
- Discuss the aptness/effectiveness or lack thereof of figurative usage
.jpeg)
MAIN CONTENT
Contrast
Contrast, defined by R. N. Egudu as "the technique of juxtaposing unlike characters, ideas, or images for the purpose of furthering or heightening an effect," serves as a means of finding direction by indirection, similar to irony or paradox (77). Hugh Holman sees it as a rhetorical device emphasizing clarity when deployed in a poem or any other writing form. Essentially, contrast comes into play when ideas, objects, persons, or situations with opposing qualities are placed side by side, making their differences clear and striking. It's crucial to note that if these elements stand alone, the clarity engendered by contrast would be lacking. Egudu considers it a means of "finding direction by indirection," throwing into sharp relief the differences between the contrasted/juxtaposed ideas, objects, situations, or characters. The following examples illustrate the workings of contrast in a poem.
In the poem "Loser of Everything" by David Mandessi Diop, contrast achieves the poet's desired effect, highlighting stark different realities in two historical periods of a postcolonial society. The natural and peaceful order depicted in nature imagery in the first ten lines contrasts with the ravished and militarized order represented in images of machines and corruption in the last ten lines. By juxtaposing these contrasting orders, the socio-political existence in a typical pre-colonial African setting and that in a colonial regime become clear and heightened.
The sun used to laugh in my hut
And my women were lovely and lissom
Like palms in the evening breeze.
My children would glide over the mighty river
Of deadly depths
And my canoes would battle with crocodiles.
The motherly moon accompanied our dances
The heavy frantic rhythm of the tom-tom,
Tom-tom of joy, tom-tom of carefree life.
Amid the fires of liberty.
Then one day, Silence...
It seemed the rays of the sun went out
In my hut empty of meaning.
My women crushed their painted mouths
On the thin hard lips of steel-eyed conquerors
And my children left their peaceful nakedness
For the uniform of iron and blood.
Your voice went out too
The irons of slavery toremy heart to pieces
Tom-tom of my nights, tom-toms of my fathers.
Hammer Blows
Another example of the use of contrast is available in the poem, ‗Virtue‘, by the English
metaphysical poet, George Herbert, as follows:
Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright,
The bridal of earth and sky,
The dew shall weep thy fall tonight
For thou must die
Sweet rose, whose hue angry and brave
Bids the rash gazer wipe his eye,
Thy root is ever in its grave;
And thou must die.
Sweet spring, full of sweet days and roses,
A box where sweets compacted lie,
My music shows ye have your closes,
And all must die.
Only a sweet and virtuous soul,
Like seasoned timber, never gives;
But though the whole world turn to coal,
Then chiefly lives.
To underscore the enduring nature of the abstract Virtue, it is juxtaposed with the ephemeral "Sweet day," "Sweet rose," "Sweet spring," all destined to inevitably die. By placing these phenomena beside the "sweet and virtuous soul," the difference between them is subtly revealed through indirection as they 'speak' for themselves.
Apostrophe
As seen in our examination of devices and their uses, poets consistently seek various techniques to concretize, emphasize, and heighten meaning in their works, as demonstrated through irony, paradox, and contrast. Now, we turn our attention to apostrophe, a direct address to an absent person or an abstract or inanimate entity (Abrams 149).
Poets employ apostrophe to convey immediacy and emotional involvement in their works, creating a sense of nearness and presence of the addressed person or entity in a poem. This usage enhances the reader's imaginative realization of meaning in a poem. Let's consider the following examples to illustrate these qualities and functions of this rhetorical figure of speech:
1. Sweet Auburn, loveliest village of the plain
Where health and plenty cheer the labouring swain
Oliver Goldsmith, ‗The Deserted Village‘
2. O dawn
Where do you hide your paint at night
That cool breath, that scent
With which you sweeten the early air?
O dawn
What language do you use
To instruct the birds to sing
Their early songs
And insects to sound
The rhythm of an African heartbeat?
Susan Lwanga, ‗Daybreak‘
3. Before you, mother Idoto,
naked I stand,
before your watery presence,
a prodigal
leaning on an oilbean,
lost in your legend...
Christopher Okigbo, ‗Idoto‘
In these three excerpts, poets address abstract and inanimate objects or entities as if they were living and sentient. As mentioned earlier, this device serves as a tool for the poet's emotional expression, evident in the direct addresses in the forms of eulogy and adulation directed to the no-longer-existing village of Auburn (in excerpt 1), the evanescent dawn (as in excerpt 2), and a revered female godhead, Idoto (in excerpt 3).
Antithesis
Antithesis is a rhetorical figure achieved by juxtaposing or placing contrasting phrases or statements side by side to create expressive balance. According to Abrams, it "is a contrast or opposition in meaning, emphasized by a parallel in grammatical structure" (10). Noteworthy is its wittiness and ability to surprise through abrupt apposition. While ingenious and attractive in a poem, Holman (35–36) cautions that it could lose its significance and surprise if overused. He advises that "true antithetical structure demands that there be not only an opposition of ideas but that the opposition in different parts be manifested through similar grammatical structure." An example is: "The hungry judges soon the sentence sign, And wretches hang that jury-men may dine." Other familiar examples include:
1. To err is human, to forgive divine
2. For many are called, but few are chosen
3. Once bitten, twice shy
Hyperbole
Hyperbole involves deliberate exaggeration or overstatement for emphasis or a humorous effect, without intending to deceive. It is the opposite of litotes. As in common usage, such as when expressing hunger after a long day of lectures by saying, "I want to eat a basin of eba," the speaker exaggerates to emphasize their hunger and achieve humor. Excerpts from Robert Burns's poem, 'A Red, Red Rose,' illustrate the nature and effect of hyperbole:
O my luve‘s like a red, red rose
That‘s newly sprung in June:
O my luve‘s like the melody,
That‘s sweetly played in tune.
As fair thou art, my bonnie lass,
So deep in luve am I;
And I will luve thee still, my dear,
Till a’ the seas gang dry.
Till a’ the seas gang dry, my dear,
And the rocks melt wi’ the sun;
And I will luve thee still, my dear,
While the sands o’ life shall run.
And fare theeweel, my only luve!
And fare theeweel awhile!
And I will come again, my luve,
Tho’ it were ten thousand mile.
You should take note of the words and lines highlighted in the stanzas and try to appreciate, enjoy, and be able to discuss their effectiveness as hyperbole.
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia, according to Abrams, "is applied to a word or a combination of words whose sound seems to resemble the sound it denotes: 'hiss,' 'buzz,' 'rattle,' 'bang'" (118). In other words, this figure involves the use of words whose pronunciation echoes or suggests their meaning. For example, the highlighted words in the following lines excerpted from Coleridge's 'The Rime of the Ancient Mariner' convey their meaning through an artful matching of sound to sense:
1. The ice was all around:
It crack'd, and growl'd, and roar'd
2. With heavy thump, ... They dropp'd one by one
3. And every soul, it pass'd me by Like the whizz of my crossbow!
The closing lines of David Rubadiri's 'An African Thunderstorm' also contain words whose sounds resemble and suggest their meaning, as follows:
As jagged blinding flashes
Rumble, tremble, and crack
Oxymoron
In oxymoron, two words or phrases of opposite or contrasting meanings are placed side by side to achieve a rhetorical effect. While such juxtaposition may seem "pointedly foolish," it achieves sharp emphasis in the context in which it is used. Examples include phrases and expressions like bitter-sweet, loving hate, pleasing pain, kindly unkind, I burn and freeze, resounding silence, conspicuous absence, a dearness that lacerates, etc.
CONCLUSION
This article has explored more figures of speech, many of which have their effect in the use of contrast for impact. Thus, we see contrast, antithesis, and oxymoron making use of opposites to create a striking effect in poetry.
SUMMARY
The figures of speech studied here are adopted by poets to create a powerful impression in the minds of readers. For example, in onomatopoeia, words are used to reproduce the sounds certain objects make, for effect (e.g., 'the thunder claps,' 'the bees buzz,' 'lightning strikes'). In hyperbole, words are used to create humorous effect (e.g., 'I have a mountain-load of dirty clothes to wash'). In antithesis, opposing words or phrases are juxtaposed to create aesthetic balance (e.g., 'bitter-sweet'). These figures of speech significantly enhance the aesthetic beauty and meaning of poetry.
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Abrams, Meyer H. (1971). A Glossary of Literary Terms. New York: Holt, Rinehart,
Winston.
Diop, David. (1973). Hammer Blows, Poems. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Egudu, Romanus N. (1977). The Study of Poetry. Ibadan: University Press.
Gardner, Helen, ed, (1972). The Metaphysical Poets. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Holman, Hugh (1972). A Handbook to Literature. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
Okigbo, Christopher
Reeves, James, ed. (1972). The Poet’s World: An Anthology of English Poetry. London: Heinemann.