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The intellectual literary tradition of East Africa reflects the region’s journey from colonial cultural inheritance to post-independence literary revolution. This tradition evolved through a series of institutional, ideological, and creative shifts, beginning with the Makerere tradition of the 1950s and early 1960s and maturing into a radical, self-conscious African literary identity by the 1970s and beyond. The trajectory of this tradition is not merely about creative writing—it is deeply intertwined with debates on cultural autonomy, national identity, and the political role of literature.
The Makerere Tradition: The Colonial Training Ground for Writers
In the 1950s and early 1960s, Makerere College—then a constituent of the University of London—was the most influential center of higher education in East Africa. It was here that the first generation of East African writers honed their craft under a curriculum steeped in English language, literature, and culture.
Key features of this phase include:
- English literary models dominated creative expression, particularly the influence of F.R. Leavis’s “Great Tradition” in literary studies.
- The Penpoint creative writing journal (late 1950s) provided an outlet for emerging writers like Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o and Peter Nazareth.
- Rajat Neogy’s Transition magazine (1961), modeled after Black Orpheus, expanded the space for literary discourse.
- The first major anthology, Origin East Africa: A Makerere Anthology (1965), edited by David Cook, drew heavily from Penpoint.
Early works were often modeled on European realism and influenced by modernist poetry, particularly T.S. Eliot, whose style freed verse from 19th-century poetic conventions. However, even within this colonial framework, writers infused their works with African oral traditions, myths, legends, and storytelling techniques.
Double Consciousness in Early East African Writing
The Makerere tradition fostered a double consciousness in East African literature:
- On one side, writers absorbed European literary norms, producing works aligned with Western aesthetics.
- On the other, they incorporated indigenous oral traditions, code-switching between English, Kiswahili, and indigenous languages—especially in drama.
- Radical nationalism seeped into the literature, ensuring that despite colonial influence, early works were rooted in African cultural consciousness rather than purely colonial ideology.
The 1960s–1970s Shift: From Colonial Influence to African Aesthetics
By the late 1960s and early 1970s, a radical transformation occurred, fueled by intellectual debates about the role of literature in post-independence Africa. This shift was marked by:
1. The Okot p’Bitek Revolution
- The publication of Song of Lawino (1966) and its sequel Song of Ocol (1969) was a turning point.
- Okot’s work broke away from colonial literary conventions, employing African oral forms and a distinctly African worldview.
- Critics hailed his style as authentically African and revolutionary, inspiring a generation of writers to redefine their cultural and aesthetic frameworks.
2. The Nairobi University Cultural Debates
- Intellectuals questioned whether English literature departments should continue to hold dominance in independent African universities.
- In 1968, Taban Lo Liyong, Owuor Anyumba, and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o famously called for the abolition of the English department at the University of Nairobi, advocating for the study of African literature in African languages.
- The 1971 Nairobi University Colloquium produced influential works like Black Aesthetics in East Africa (edited by Pio Zirimu) and Writers in East Africa (edited by Andrew Gurr and Angus Calder).
3. Influence of African Socialism and Radical Scholarship
- Julius Nyerere’s Arusha Declaration (1967) promoted Ujamaa and African cultural revival.
- Dar es Salaam University became a hub for radical intellectuals, attracting figures like Walter Rodney, whose How Europe Underdeveloped Africa shaped political thought.
- The “dependency theory” from Latin America resonated with East African writers grappling with the failures of post-independence governance.
Fanonism and the Postcolonial Critique
A significant intellectual current came from Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth (1968), which several East African writers and scholars encountered during their time at Leeds University. Fanon’s analysis of neocolonialism, cultural identity, and revolutionary change influenced:
- Pio Zirimu
- Peter Nazareth
- Grant Kamenju
- Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o
This Fanon-inspired critique framed the 1970s and 1980s literary agenda, focusing on:
- The failure of African independence to break from colonial economic and cultural structures.
- The centrality of national culture in sustaining genuine liberation.
- Literature as a revolutionary tool in reshaping society.
From Makerere to Nairobi and Dar es Salaam: The Shift in Literary Power
By the second decade after independence:
- Makerere’s dominance waned, partly due to Idi Amin’s dictatorship forcing Ugandan intellectuals into exile.
- Nairobi University emerged as the new epicenter of literary debates and African-centered curricula.
- Dar es Salaam University became a meeting ground for radical African and Third World scholars, blending Marxist, socialist, and dependency theory perspectives into the literary tradition.
Legacy and Continuing Influence
The intellectual literary tradition of East Africa evolved from a colonially influenced model to a radically African-centered literary movement. Its legacy includes:
- A blended literary identity combining African oral traditions with redefined modernist forms.
- The politicization of literature, making it a central tool in cultural nationalism.
- Enduring debates over language, cultural authenticity, and literary purpose.
Even into the 1990s and beyond, the radical vision born in the 1970s continued to shape East African literature, keeping it engaged with themes of cultural liberation, postcolonial critique, and national identity.
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