Feminist Literary Criticism in Africa: Awkward Beginnings, Cultural Nationalism, and the Path to Womanism

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Feminist literary criticism in Africa emerged within a politically charged environment shaped by decolonization, cultural nationalism, and debates over ideological authenticity. Unlike in Europe and North America, where feminism developed largely as a movement focused on gender equality and the critique of patriarchy, its African counterpart began in a context where nationalism and collective liberation struggles took precedence over individual rights. The result was an “awkward beginning” marked by defensive engagement with cultural nationalism, suspicion of Western feminism, and a search for frameworks that reflected African realities.

Cultural Nationalism and the Suspicion of Feminism

Much of the early literary criticism in Africa was tied to cultural nationalism, the ideological foundation of independence movements. Feminism, in this environment, was often dismissed as:

• Too European – Critics claimed it carried Western cultural baggage incompatible with African traditions.
• Too Individualistic – It was accused of prioritizing personal liberation over the collective struggles of race, nation, class, or clan.

One of the most outspoken critics of feminism’s relevance to Africa was Femi Ojo-Ade, who argued that African liberation movements needed unity rather than what he saw as a divisive gender ideology. Strikingly, no similar accusations were leveled against Marxism, despite its foreign intellectual origins.

Feminist Responses: The Voice of ’Molara Ogundipe-Leslie

Nigerian Marxist-feminist critic ’Molara Ogundipe-Leslie challenged the dismissal of feminism as irrelevant to Africa. She posed a powerful question: if African women are truly free from oppression, then why should they not have an ideology that addresses their realities? She further pointed out that African cultures historically had their own gender-conscious ideologies, offering channels for women’s resistance to injustice long before colonial influence.

This counterargument framed African feminism not as an imported ideology, but as a continuation and revitalization of indigenous traditions of gender justice.

Womanism: Bridging Feminism and Cultural Nationalism

African feminist literary criticism developed in a diacritical relationship with cultural nationalism—both opposing its patriarchal elements and embracing its anti-colonial aspirations. One significant outcome was the popularity of “womanism”, a term coined in 1967 by African-American writer Alice Walker.

Walker’s definition emphasized:

• Commitment to the survival and wholeness of entire communities—men and women alike.
• Non-separatism, except temporarily for self-care.

African critics embraced womanism because it addressed gender inequality while also affirming the collective struggle for racial and cultural survival.

Why Radical Feminism Found Little Ground in Africa

In contrast to the radical feminist movements of Europe and North America, which attributed women’s oppression primarily to male dominance, African feminist criticism identified multiple intersecting oppressions:

• Colonialism’s structural violence
• Economic exploitation
• Cultural disruption caused by imperialism

This meant that patriarchy was not seen as the sole or even primary source of women’s oppression. As a result:

• Female sexuality—especially homosexuality—was rarely addressed in early African women’s writing.
• When lesbianism did appear, it was often linked to negative themes such as racial or colonial divisions (Ama Ata Aidoo’s Our Sister Killjoy, 1979) or anxieties about urban modernity (Rebeka Njau’s Ripples in the Pool, 1975).
• By the 1980s, Francophone African women writers such as Calixthe Beyala, Angèle Rawiri, Tanella Boni, and Véronique Tadjo began to explore sexuality more openly, sometimes including depictions of lesbian relationships that were intertwined with heterosexual narratives.

Liberal Feminism in the African Context

The liberal feminist approach—which seeks women’s emancipation through equal access to education, economic opportunity, and legal rights—also underwent adaptation in Africa. Unlike in Western contexts, African liberal feminism could not ignore the legacy of colonialism, which:

• Limited women’s educational and economic opportunities.
• Embedded systemic inequalities in political and legal systems.

For African feminists, even the quest for “simple” equality was inseparable from the global system of power relations that historically disadvantaged African nations.

However, as more African women gained higher education and as socialist rhetoric became tainted by its association with authoritarian regimes, liberal feminism began to appear more appealing to many—especially in its pragmatic approach to individual empowerment.

Conclusion

The early years of feminist literary criticism in Africa were shaped by ideological tension, cultural negotiation, and the search for authenticity. Suspicion from cultural nationalists, strategic adaptations like womanism, and an unwillingness to reduce women’s oppression solely to patriarchy distinguished African feminism from its Western counterparts. Over time, African feminist criticism evolved into a multidimensional framework—one that addresses gender, colonial history, economic inequality, and cultural survival all at once. This distinctive trajectory continues to influence the reading, teaching, and production of African literature today.