(toc) #title= (Table of Content)
Characteristics of the Morpheme:
The morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in English. One or more morphemes give us a word. Examples are listed below:
Manage + ment = management
Intend + ing = intending
More examples on morphemes:
dis + locat + ion = dislocation
in + depend + ent + ly = independently
un + gramma + tic + al = ungrammatical
im + perish + able = imperishable
mis + represent + ed = misrepresented
commend + able = commendable
endow + ment = endowment
mis + appropriat + ion = misappropriation
un + educat + ed = uneducated
commit + ment = commitment
Morphemes could either be free or bound. A free morpheme has a dictionary meaning. Content words are examples of free morphemes. Bound morphemes do not have any meaning independently except being attached to a free morpheme.
3.2 The Word in English:
The word is defined in the dictionary as a single unit of language that has meaning and can be spoken or written. Words are classified as a certain word-class: noun, adjective, verb, adjective, adverb, article, preposition, or pronoun as a result of the role it plays in context. Though traditionally, word-classes have roles, but these roles change in function. For example, 'man' is traditionally a noun but it can also be used as a verb.
He is a man (noun).
He will man the post for the team (verb).
Words have some characteristics which have been discussed at length in Unit 3.
Each word in the English language has a particular position in which it can operate. Though this assumption is gradually giving way in the English language as function plays a prominent role these days. That is, emphasis is now more on how a word behaves in a sentence.
Morpheme / word relationship can be illustrated with this diagram:
w w m m m m where w stands for word and m stands for morpheme.
Examples:
Dis + approv + al = disapproval (a word made of 3 morphemes meaning + ful + ness = meaningfulness (a word made up of 3 morphemes).
A major difference between the morpheme and the word is the fact that the morpheme is the unit immediately below the word while the word is the unit next in rank on the hierarchy to the morpheme.
Another difference between the morpheme and the word is that the word cannot be embedded into the morpheme but rather the morpheme is embedded into the word.
Also, meaning in the language starts with the unit called 'word' whereas the morpheme maintains non-meaningfulness except for the free morpheme which also qualifies to be called a word.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1:
State clearly the relationship between the word and the morpheme.
3.3 Word Classes in English:
Words are classified as parts of speech in traditional grammar because of the role they play in a sentence. But, traditional parts of speech in modern grammar are now called word classes or classes of words. However, we must understand that these days in English, prominence is given to function (that is, what the particular word is doing in the sentence) more than mere classification. This is because the same word may serve several grammatical functions, that is, play many roles in different sentences. For example, the word 'round' in these sentences:
a. The boxer was defeated in the third round (Noun).
b. The bus driver rounded the corner at 12 noon (Verb)
c. The earth has been proved to be round (Adjective)
d. He showed the president round the two teams (Adverb)
e. The old woman tied a girdle round her waist. (Preposition)
From the examples above, the word 'round' in example:
1. is used as a noun
2. is used as a verb
3. is used as an adjective
4. is used as an adverb
5. is used as a preposition. This proves that a word is a particular word-class in the context in which it is used.
3.3.1 Nouns:
A noun is the name of any word that can stand as the subject or object of any sentence. There are basically four types of nouns. These are:
a. Common Noun: This is the name of any class of persons, places or even things. For example, man, room, table, Kanji Dam, etc.
b. Proper Noun: This is the name of a particular thing or person. For example, Jide, Mary, Lagos, Benin, Kaduna, etc.
c. Abstract Noun: This type of noun denotes qualities or concepts. For example, Joy, goodness, cowardice, beauty, etc.
d. Collective Noun: This type of noun names a group of things, a whole set or a collection of people or things. Their membership is by the common features displayed. For example, staff, congregation, crowd, electorate, etc.
3.3.2 Verb:
A verb is that part of a sentence which indicates an action or a state of being carried out by the subject. It is the most important element in the clause structure. This is because it gives meaning to the sentence, and it is mandatory in a sentence. Examples of verbs include come, go, dance, play, jump, etc.
There are two major types of verbs and they are:
a. Lexical or main verbs
b. Auxiliary verbs
(a) Lexical verbs:
These are also called main verbs or full verbs because they carry lexical meanings. All lexical verbs are capable of going through the six forms of a verb. These forms are:
1. base or base infinitive form e.g. go, dance, sing
2. third person sing. Form (-es) goes, dances, sings
3. continuous form (-ing) going, dancing, singing
4. past tense form (-ed) went, dance, sang
5. participle form (-en) gone, danced, sung
6. to infinitive form (to + base) to go, to dance, to sing
From the verbal conjugation above, 'dance' is an example of a regular verb because it has the same form for the past tense (-ed) and past participle (-en). We can say that it forms its past tense by taking (-ed). The acceptance of (-ed) makes the verb 'dance' a regular verb. Other examples of regular verbs are:
Jump, jumped, jumped
work, worked, worked
walk, walked, walked
hiss, hissed, hissed
stop, stopped, stopped
form, formed, formed, etc.
Another revelation made from the verbal conjugation above is that some verbs like 'go' and 'sing' do not need the (-ed) morpheme to form their past tense. These verbs are referred to as irregular verbs. An irregular verb changes form (or goes through morphological transformation which is conditioned by phonological rules) to form its past tense and past participle. (We treated phonological rules in module 5).
Other examples of irregular verbs are:
ring, rang, rung
take, took, taken
give, gave, given
forget, forgot, forgotten
write, wrote, written, etc.
b) Auxiliary Verbs
Verbs, called auxiliary verbs, are so named because they need the presence of lexical verbs to operate in a sentence. By their name, they are supporting or helping verbs. There are two major types of auxiliary verbs: primary and modal auxiliary verbs.
(i) Primary auxiliary verbs: these are three and they are: BE, HAVE, and DO; the three of them have their sub-forms.
BE: am, is, are; was, were
HAVE: has, have; had
DO: do, does; did
Non-finite forms: be, being; have, having; been
Adapted from Adejare and Adejare (1996).
(c) Modal Auxiliary Verbs:
They are also known as secondary and they reflect or indicate the mood of the speaker in a sentence. For examples:
can:
- I can drive (ability)
will:
- I will drive (intention)
may:
- You may drive (permission)
must:
- He must drive (compulsion)
Other examples of modal auxiliary verbs and their 'past tense' forms are listed below:-
- would
- could
- should
- might
- No past tense form
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
With 2 examples for each, identify 2 types of noun and verb that you know.
3.3.3 Adjective
An adjective is a word that describes, qualifies, or tells us more about a noun or pronoun. Examples are beautiful, interesting, big, small, round, new, e.t.c.
Adjectives are attributive when they come before the nouns they describe e.g.
Shade has a beautiful dress.
The brown bag has been stolen.
That fat boy is naughty.
The young girl sings well.
And predicative when they come after the nouns they describe as in these examples:
Shade’s dress is beautiful.
That leather bag is brown.
Michael Jackson died young.
The naughty boy is fat.
3.3.4 Adverb
An adverb is a word class that modifies a verb. In other words, it offers more information about a verb or the action expressed by the verb. This is the reason it is called the modifier of the verb. It is also possible for an adverb to modify an adjective, another adverb, a phrase e.t.c. The modifying role of function of an adverb is done by supplying vital information such as telling us place, time, manner, degree, condition, result, purpose, reason, etc about the verb.
The underlined words in the following sentences are adverbs:-
a. The girl runs fast (modifies runs).
b. He danced well yesterday (modifies danced).
c. The lecturer often teaches (modifies teaches).
d. It always rains in July (modifies rains).
e. That was beautifully done (modifies done).
f. He defeated the wrestler easily (modifies defeated).
Morphologically, adverbs can be formed from adjectives by adding (-ly) to such adjectives.
For example,
Adjective Adverb (a) beautiful = ly beautifully (b) easy + ly = easily (c) careful + ly = carefully (d) quick = ly = quickly (e) happy + ly = happily (f) rapid + ly = rapidly (g) wrong + ly = wrongly (h) high + ly = highly (i) handsome + ly = handsomely (j) faithful + ly = faithfully (k) near + ly = nearly (l) legal + ly = legally (m) social + ly = socially (n) political + ly = politically e.t.c.
There are several kinds of adverbs though some are not morphologically marked. The most common ones among them are listed below:-
Adverb of place: This kind of adverb tells us where an action takes place. Hence, it answers the question where? For example,
I saw him there (where did I see him?)
The man searched everywhere (where did the man search?)
The thief hid the money somewhere. (where did the thief hide the money?)
3.3.4.2 Adverb of Time
This type of adverb tells us when an action takes place. Thus, it answers the question when? For example,
The match will end soon. (When will the match end?)
My father traveled today (when did my father travel?)
The plane leaves for Abuja tomorrow (when will the plane leave for Abuja?)
3.3.4.3 Adverb of Manner
This type of adverb modifies a verb by telling us how the action of the verb was carried out. For example, The girl sang sonorously (how did the girl sing?)
The team played well (how did the team play?)
The students politely greeted their president (how did the students greet their president?)
Adverb of Frequency
This type of adverb only indicates the rate of occurrence or the frequency of the occurrence of an action. For example:
Jide usually goes to school late.
Politicians always tell lies.
Lazy students scarcely succeed in life.
3.3.4.5 Adverbs of Degree
This type of adverb only intensifies or de-intensifies the action of the verb it modifies. For example:
This food is so delicious that he ate two plates.
That load is too heavy for you to carry.
I almost forgot to say my prayers.
Some adverbs are compared in the same way with adjectives, is that they take the morphemes –er or -est, and more or most comparison.
(a) (-er) and (-est)
Adverb Comparative Superlative
Soon sooner soonest
Late later latest
Fast faster fastest etc.
(b) (more) and most
Adverb Comparative Superlative
Diligently more diligently most diligently
Quickly more quickly most quickly
Carefully more carefully most carefully
Gracefully more gracefully most gracefully
Kindly more kindly most kindly
Leisurely more leisurely most leisurely
Generously more generously most generously
Some adverbs cannot be compared at all. They include these:
so, ever, never, now, then, too, e.t.c. and some have a peculiar way of being compared
For example:
Adverb Comparative Superlative
badly worse worst
little less least
old older older
old elder eldest
well better best
much more most
Old, older, and oldest are used for general age. For example, He is old; I am older; He is the oldest of us all; while old, older, and eldest are used among siblings or family relationships. For example, I am old; He is my elder brother; He is my eldest brother.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
Two classes of words tend to give more information about other words – identify and discuss the words, with examples.
3.3.4 Pronoun
A pronoun is a word used to replace a noun earlier mentioned in a sentence. This is done to avoid unnecessary repetition of nouns in a sentence. For example:
Jide is a young graduate.
Jide will get married to Yinka soon.
Yinka is a graduate of the University of Lagos.
The University of Lagos is located in Akoka.
Jide and Yinka will live happily thereafter.
The continuous mentioning of Jide, Yinka, and University of Lagos make the sentence monotonous and repetitive. The sentence will be better appreciated like this:
Jide is a young graduate.
He will get married to Yinka soon.
She is a graduate of the University of Lagos.
It is located in Akoka.
They will live happily thereafter.
The following changes have taken place:
Jide
Yinka
University of Lagos
Jide and Yinka
There are many types of pronouns depending on the roles played in a sentence as can be seen below:
3.3.5.1 Personal Pronouns
They are about the most important subclass of pronouns. They exhibit four features, namely:
(a) Number
(b) Gender
(c) Case
(d) Person
(a) Number: Number subdivides personal pronouns into two: singular, that is, singular pronouns He, I, it, etc., and plurality, that is, plural pronouns they, we, etc.
(b) Gender: - This subdivides personal pronouns into three: masculine pronouns for male – He; feminine pronouns for female – she; and neuter pronouns for non-living things and non-humans – it.
(c) Case – This subdivides personal pronouns into three: subjective for subjects; e.g., I, we, etc.; objective for objects; e.g., us, her, etc., and genitive which subdivides into two – adjectival e.g., my, our, etc., and possessive e.g., mine, hers, ours, etc.
(d) Person: - This subdivides personal pronouns into three: 1st person – the speaker(s); e.g., I, we 2nd person – the person spoken to or the listener e.g., you, and 3rd person – the person or thing referred to or spoken about. We may use this diagram to illustrate more clearly:
Indefinite Pronouns
They do not refer to particular things or persons. In other words, they refer to an indefinite number of people or things. They include, someone, nobody, anything, anybody, everybody, many, few, either, neither, all, e.t.c.
Most indefinite pronouns are used in the singular number. For example:
Everybody is invited to my birthday party.
No one knows tomorrow except God.
Anything you offer me is good.
Someone is not telling the truth in this matter.
Each of the players is a champion.
Someone should tell this woman to shut up.
These days, however, because of sexism and caution on sexist language, these indefinite pronouns now take plural verbs though they sound somewhat ungrammatical. For example:
Someone has left their pen on the floor.
Everybody keeps their problems to themselves.
If anyone is in doubt, they should consult me.
Everyone should mind their business here.
3.3.5.3 Reflexive Pronouns
They are so named because they refer to another element (pronoun or noun) earlier mentioned within the clause. In most cases, personal pronouns + self (for singular) and + selves (plural) give us reflexive pronouns.
These personal pronouns must, however, be in their adjectival case before they can take up this extra duty.
This is called co-referentiality in text linguistics. For example:
The boy killed himself.
The students carried out the assignment themselves.
Can’t you solve that riddle yourself?
Nigerian politicians destroyed democracy themselves.
3.3.5.4 Relative Pronouns
These usually link adjectival or relative clauses or rankshifted clauses to their antecedents. The antecedent of a relative pronoun is the noun that comes before it. They include who, whom, that, which, whose, what.
ü This is the man whose daughter eloped with a man.
ü The bag that was stolen has been found by the police.
ü The old man who was rushed to the hospital is Mary’s grandfather.
ü The bag which you gave me has lost its value.
ü The man whom we mistook for the Pastor is the Pastor’s friend.
3.3.5.5 Interrogative Pronouns
These are pronouns that we use to ask questions. They include:-
who, whom, why, when, where, which, what, whose. They usually start interrogative sentences, and these sentences end with a question mark. For example:
What is your name?
Who stole my bag?
Where are you now?
Whose are those pairs of shoes?
Which of the items is yours?
Why did you do it?
Demonstrative Pronouns
They are pronouns that point out the location of what they represent. They are, ‘this’ for singular and near object, with ‘these’ as the plural; and ‘that’ for singular and far objects with ‘those’ as the plural. Examples are as follow:-
This is my house.
These are my houses.
That is a duster.
Those are fine cars.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4
Discuss 6 types of English pronouns you know, giving two examples of each.
3.3.6 Preposition
A preposition is a word that has the responsibility of showing the relationship that exists between two elements, especially, nominals in a sentence. They include in, on, for, from, to, under, around, about, with, by, below, e.t.c. For example these sentences:-
The bird is on the tree.
We boarded the bus at Agboju bus stop.
The match will kick off at 4pm.
You have the honor of choosing between the two oranges.
He has lived in America for four years.
The ball went over the bar.
I met him by the gate this morning, etc.
3.3.7 Conjunction
A conjunction is a word that joins or links words, phrases, groups, clauses, and even sentences. There are four types: coordinating conjunction, subordinating conjunction, correlative conjunction, and semi-coordinating conjunction.
3.3.7.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
They join elements of equal grammatical status or rank. That is, two independent clauses. For example:
Janet and James are siblings.
She or he will watch the match live.
I will see my mother and I will also see a few friends.
3.3.7.2 Correlative Conjunctions
They come in pairs, and are used to join structural elements. For example:
Both food and money were made available.
Neither the teacher nor the students are to be held responsible.
Either you leave now or I lock you up.
3.3.7.3 Semi-Coordinating Conjunctions
They include as well as, as much as, along with, rather than, e.t.c. for example:
She dances as well as plays football.
The principal, along with the students, was honored.
3.3.7.4 Subordinating Conjunctions
They connect clauses of unequal value or status, that is, an independent and a dependent clause. For example:
If it rains, I will stay indoors.
The carpenter could not work on the roof because there was a patient in the hospital.
She was eating when I entered.
3.3.8 Interjections
This is a word that is used to show emotions or feelings of joy, anger, surprise, shock, e.t.c. They are accompanied by an exclamation mark (!). For example:
Wow! I was almost robbed.
Oh! It’s good to be home.
Oh dear! You saved my life.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5
Discuss the main function prepositions and conjunctions perform in sentences.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have looked at the morpheme and the word with emphasis on their differences. For more on this, please check modules 1 and 2 above. In this unit, we looked at the morpheme and word. We noted that meaning starts in the language with the word. We went on to discuss word classes – Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, and interjections. We also attempted to look at the different kinds or subclasses of word classes, with copious examples.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6
1. With suitable examples, discuss the following:
(a) Adverb of time
(b) Adverb of manner
(c) Conjunctions and its types
2. With the aid of suitable examples, discuss the following:-
(a) Personal pronouns
(b) Indefinite pronouns
(c) Reflexive pronouns
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied:
• more about the morpheme;
• more about the word;
• the difference(s) between the morpheme and the word;
• word classes; and
• types of word classes and their subdivisions.