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English and French in the 13th Century
In the 13th century, French and English continued to function as the primary language of communication. The upper class mostly continued to speak French, but this time, it was no longer as the mother tongue inherited from Norman ancestors but as a matter of social custom, business, and administrative convention. Meanwhile, English made steady progress. At a point, it became quite clear that English was becoming a favorite language. When the English nobles lost their interest in Normandy and France, as we saw in the last Unit, it was no longer a surprise that English became a matter of general use among the upper class. At this time also, there was wholesale adoption of French words into English; the reason being that those who spoke French now tried to express themselves in English. Within this period also, literature that was intended to entertain the nobility began to be translated from French to English. And just as we mentioned in the last chapter, there were evidences that towards the end of the 13th century, children of the upper class began to speak English as their mother-tongue, which implied that English was becoming a household language among the upper class. Significantly, English was used in parliament, in the law courts, and in public communication. The spread of English among the upper class was making steady progress, and the general attitude began to favor the use of English. The attitude then was that the language for proper English people to know and use was English.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Describe the position of English and French in the 13th century.
Explain how French loan words found their way into English at this time.
The Decline of French
We must not lose sight of the fact that French began to lose its status as the official language of England in 1204 when King John lost the control of Normandy. This affected the fortunes of the English nobles who lost their estates and began to lose their connections with the continent. Consequently, they began to see themselves as English men and began to identify with English cultures including language.
Another contributing factor that led to the decline of French was the Hundred Year War (1337-1453). Edward III claimed the French throne and invaded France. England was victorious at Crecy (1346) and Poitiers (1346). Henry V also won a significant victory over France in 1415. This long time antagonism and hostility among the two nations contributed to the weakening of the influence of French in England and enhanced interest in learning and using the English language.
At the close of the 13th century, it was clear that French was losing its hold on England and the tendency to communicate in English was becoming increasingly stronger, even in the church and universities.
Another factor that undermined the position of French was the provincial character of French in England. French was spoken in provinces, and was particularly restricted to the ruling and upper classes. Norman French was a mixture of dialect, which became further corrupted by contact with English. What we may call the Anglo-Saxon French was non-standard French. So, when the opportunity came to drop the language, it was quite easy to do.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Discuss the factors that gave rise to the decline of French in England in the 13th century.
The Rise of the Middle Class
You have seen so far that the importance of a language lies mainly on the importance of those that use such a language. This is a feature that helped English to rise and de-emphasized the use of French in England, because as the living conditions and prestige of the common people improved, it also improved the position of English Language.
During the Middle English Period, there was this practice of villeinage among the rural population. A villein was a poor farmer who got a little piece of land in return for working on the land of a rich landowner. In 1349 precisely, an epidemic broke out in the South West of England, which soon spread rapidly to other parts of the country.
The diseases killed its victims within three days. The spread of the epidemic and the rapidity with which it killed people were unbelievable. Some studies said that 40% of the clergy died, and approximately more than 30% of the overall population was lost to the epidemic. Because of the high death rate of the plague, it was referred as the “The Black Death”. Naturally, the mortality of the epidemic was more among the villeins, the poor, and the low class. The result was a serious shortage of labor. Many villeins (laborers) escaped England during the Plague. For those that remained there was a rise in wages but that could not solve the burden of their poor condition. A general spirit of discontent soon arose, which led to the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381. Coupled with the effect of the Black Death, the importance of the laboring class was recognized. Remember that this increased the importance of the language of the emerging class, which is English.
At this time also, another important group arose - the craftsmen and the merchant class. By 1250 England had grown to about 200 towns with increasing populations. Some places like London and York were considerably large. These towns became free and self-governing. The people were engaged in trade mostly. Some were in manufacturing crafts, with commercial groups and fraternities to secure their positions. In these environments, each town began to have a strong wealthy class, standing halfway between the rural low class (the peasants) and the aristocracy which was then hereditary.
With such changes, you can see that the social and economic life of the English speaking population was a great advantage to the final triumph of the English language.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
Do you agree that the rise of the Middle Class in the England of the 13th century aided the growth of English? Give two (2) reasons for your answer.
General Adoption of English
From the beginning of the 14th century upward, English began to gain ascendancy in England. Popular literature of this period was primarily in English, which until a generation before had been in French. Though English was now understood by everyone, French did not die out completely. It was still used in the courts although English had largely taken its place. Those who spoke French in the 14th century were bilingual, and some people in the upper class still spoke French in the parliament when necessary but generally used English. In 1362, the Chancellor opened parliament for the first time with a speech in English. In 1388 parliament required all guilds (professional associations) to submit reports on their foundations, statuses, property etc. The submissions were mostly in Latin, but about 49 of them were in English, out numbering those in French. Towards the latter part of the century, much of the business of parliament was conducted in English When Richard II was deposed of, the article of accusation read to him was in Latin and English. The order deposing him was also read to him in English. Henry IV’s speeches claiming and accepting the throne was delivered in English.
In the 14th century as you can see, English was again the mother tongue of English. To give English language its rightful place in all England, steps were taken to adopt it in the English legal system. Hitherto, French had been the language of legal proceedings. But in the 14th century it became necessary to reverse the trend In 1356, the Mayor of London ordered that proceedings in the Sheriff’s courts in London and Middlesex be conducted in English. In 1362, “the statute of pleading” in court was enacted, stating that all lawsuits shall be conducted in English, and the reason for this was that French was much unknown in the country.
Shortly after the Norman Conquest, French replaced English as the language of education. The use of French in English schools became quite general. But again, in the 14th century, English began to be used in schools, and by 1385 the practice had become general and overwhelming. By the 15th century, the French language became increasingly unknown. Many nobles could no longer speak French, and the ability to communicate in French was viewed as an accomplishment. The ability to write it was becoming less general among the ruling and upper classes.
The last significant progress which the English was to make in its growth to supremacy was its use in writing. Before the Norman conquest, Latin was the recognized language of literature and written communication, and before the 14th century, French was adopted as the first language of England and the primary language of writing and literature. In the 14th century, English replaced both. After 1450, letters were written in English as a general rule. Wills were also written in English. For example, the wills of Henry IV, Henry V, and Henry VI were all written in English. English was also adopted in writing records of towns and guilds and in branches of the central government. At about 1430, many towns were translating their ordinances and their customary books into English. And English became general in their transactions. After the 1450s, the English literature of the Middle English period showed that English had gained general adoption throughout England.
Where French had enjoyed primacy as the language of poetry and books among the nobles, English now became the preferred medium. It was this general adoption of English by all classes in the latter part of the 14th century that triggered a new interest in literature, which gave rise to a high point of English literary achievements in the Middle Ages. The period between 1350 and 1400 had been called the period of great individual writers. This was the period that Geoffrey Chaucer, (13400- 1400) regarded as the greatest English poet before Shakespeare wrote, authored a love story titled Troilus and Criseyde as well as the Canterbury Tales. Other big names of English literature of this period include William Langland, author of Piers Plowman (1362-1387); John Wycliffe, the translator of the Bible and the unknown poet who wrote one of the finest of the Middle English Romances titled Sir Gawain and the Green Knight”. Middle English no doubt, contributed immensely to the fortunes of the English language.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4
1. Describe some of the first signs that showed that English was becoming a popular language in England in the 14th century.
2. Identify some factors that were responsible for the general adoption of English in the 14th and 15th centuries.
Conclusion
We can say in conclusion that social and economic conditions favored the re-establishment of English as the first language of England in the 14th century. With the growing interest in English and a declining fortune of French, one will expect that English would peak up quickly. And this was exactly what happened. Englishmen became proud of themselves and their culture and took definite steps to curtail the influence of French and promote the learning and use of English. It was no surprise that even in law and public administration, English was adopted as the language of official business. Soon English became the popular language throughout England and used as the language of parliament, law, education, religion, and general communication.
Summary
English made a steady advancement in the 13th century as the upper classes no longer relied primarily on French for communication. The nobility who lost most of their fortunes with the loss of Normandy, looked up to England for hope, and began to appreciate their language. Their children soon spoke English as their mother tongue. French declined steadily in the 14th century, due to a general renewed interest in English and the Hundred Year War which resulted in a long time of hostility between England and France. Some successive victories of England over France; significant interest in English in the church and universities; and the provincial character of French in England; all weakened French influence in England. Just as these factors witnessed the decline of French, they advanced the status of English.
A major factor in the general adoption of the English language is the rise of the Middle class from the groups of tradesmen and craftsmen, engendered by the “Black Death” of 1349 and the rise of the living standard of the working class; the growth of English cities and their independent status to govern themselves. Other factors were direct legislation, replacing French with English in the courts and in government, adoption of English in schools, and the acceptance and use of English in writing. Thus English was once again re-established as the general language of all England.
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