1.0 INTRODUCTION
Unlike spoken language which has a number of devices through which we can identify long and short pauses or variations in tone that can help us determine the meaning of utterances, written language depends heavily on punctuation for meaningful interpretation.
King (2000:156) sees punctuation as:
a system capable of conveying force, intonation, urgency, tension doubt, rhythm and passion, while ever abandoning its duty to consistency and clarity of meaning Quirk et al. (1985) notes that there are two principles underlying the punctuation system and these are separation and specification. Details of these can be seen in Quirk et al (1985). See the reference at the end of this unit. In the content section we shall deal with the different kinds of punctuations and their uses.
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3.1 Punctuation in English
The main purpose of punctuation marks is to give your writing a meaning by helping you to present your ideas in clear, well demarcated sentences. Punctuation marks should not be used indiscriminately. They should be used when necessary. Some people are heavy punctuators while some are light. Legal language may require heavy punctuation while common writings such as letters may require light punctuation. Even though there are some underlying principles you must follow to be well understood, punctuation could also be a matter of personal taste. Below are some common punctuation marks in English.
3.1.1 The Full Stop (.)
The full stop or period is an important punctuation mark in English. It is surprising that many people write without putting full stops at the end of their sentences. If you write and you do not put a full stop or you forget to put a full stop, it means you have not ended that sentence. It means you still want to continue that sentence because there is nothing like the longest sentence. You can keep on writing and as long as you put the appropriate linkers, you can write a sentence as long as a whole room. In essence, what I am trying to say is that you should always remember to put a full stop when you think you are through with a sentence. The full stop could be used in the following ways-
a. for marking the end of a statement e.g.
1. She danced.
2. The boy and girl washed their clothes in the water,fetched two buckets of water and went home to cook for their parents.
b. for marking the end of a command e.g.
1. Come immediately.
2. Stop shouting.
3. Answer the question clearly and directly.
4. Please go straight to the point.
c. for indicating abbreviations
i) Acronyms e.g.
1. O.A. U (Organisation of African Unity) (Obafemi Awolowo University)
2. U.N (United Nations)
3. D.G (Director General)
The full stop is however optional here, we may also have –OAU, DG, UN without the periods.
ii) A person’s initials e.g.
1. J.J Okon
2. M.A Olateju
3. T.OAjayi
The full stop is also optional here. It is therefore possible to write- JJ Okon, MA Olateju or TO Ajayi
iii) Abbreviations on the model of the following:
1. Vol. (Volume)
2. Gen. (General)
3. Jan. (January)
The full stop is omitted here only when the last letter of the abbreviation is also the last letter of the word. For example - Mr(.) Mister, Dr(.) Doctor
3.1.2 The Question Mark (?)
The question mark is another important punctuation mark in English. It can be used in the following ways:
a. to mark the end of a question e.g.
1. When are you coming?
2. What is your father’s name?
3. Is it true that Kunle has won a scholarship?
The examples above are the conventional ways of asking questions. The question mark can also be used to mark the end of a statement with a high intonation in form of a question e.g.
1. He is coming tomorrow?
2. You came home with him from the airport?
Please note that it is usual to mark with a full stop the end of question used to give an order or make a request e.g.
1. Will you please shut the door.
But also:
2. Will you please shut the door?
Please note also that you do not have to put a full stop after the question mark again because it already has a stop below the curve.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Punctuate the following sentences
1. I will go to Lagos tomorrow
2. What is your Celtel Number
3. Give me your notebook now (with a rising tone)
4. What of the ballpoint I told you about
5. The weather is fine today
3.1.3 The Exclamation Mark (!)
The exclamation mark is normally used at the end of an exclamation; something of a great surprise on the negative or the positive side e.g.
1. How wonderful!
2. Exciting!
3. Man, this is awful!
Please note that the exclamation mark may also be used to mark the end of a vigorous command, statement or question. These are produced in the spoken form with a raised voice. Where the vigorous commands, statements and questions are rendered as they should, the response is always immediate.
I once had the opportunity of teaching a group of students this aspect of English and a set of students who came late to the class were just entering the class when I said Get out! as an example of a vigorous command. The students who were already at the door wanting to come in went back immediately. The other students inside the class room burst into laughter and one of them went to call them in telling them I was not referring to them but that I just gave an example of a vigorous command. So it can be very effective if well rendered.
Vigorous command
1. Get out!
2. Close the window!
3. Kneel down there!
Vigorous statement
1. I will not answer you!
2. You met the window closed!
3. I am coming tomorrow!
Vigorous question
1. What did you just say!
2. Are you alright at all!
3. What do you want!
3.1.4 The Comma (,)
The comma is, apart from the full stop, the most frequently used punctuation mark. It is commonly used -
a. For marking out the end of the first two clauses linked by a coordinator in a compound or compound complex sentence, particularly when the coordinator is but.
1. He came, but his presence was not felt.
2. He passed, but his mother was not pleased with his grades.
3. The students at NOUN really love their work, and they have a great deal of admiration for their hard working instructors.
In each of the sentences above, there are two clauses. In sentence 1 for example, He came is a clause. His presence was not felt is another clause. But is a coordinating conjunction separating the first clause from the second. The same thing applies to the other sentences. The comma marks out the end of the first clause. However, a comma does not need to appear after the first clause if both clauses have identical subjects or if
the sentence as a whole is extremely short e.g.
She greeted him and (she) smiled.
In the sentence above, she is the subject of the first clause- she greeted him.
The second clause has only the predicator but she is put in bracket to show that the subject of the second clause is ellipted. That is, when you read the sentence you do not have to read the ellipted subject along. The sentence should read:
She greeted him and smiled
b. For marking out items (words, phrases, or clauses coordinated in
a series).
Words e.g.
1. If you like, you can sing, dance,jump and roll on the ground.
2. Bola gave me some beautiful, precious, designer shoes.
Phrases e.g.
1. The man bought two he-goats, five bags of beans, six gallons of groundnut oil(,) and a hundred big yams
Clauses e.g.
1. He jumped down, (he) danced a little, (he) picked up the dirty note (,) and (he) went away still dancing.
You will notice that the words, phrases, and clauses in italics follow each other and they are separated by the comma. The subjects in the bracket are ellipted. They are only put there to show you what the clauses would look like if the subjects were to be repeated. Please note that the comma preceding the coordinator between the two final items is optional except when its omission would lead to a mis-reading of the sentence. Although for stylistic purpose, at times you can have cases where no coordinator is used as in:
They can, they will, they must.
c. For separating adverbials (conjuncts, disjuncts and adjuncts)
3.2 Conjuncts
Conjuncts can be said to serve the primary purpose of indicating a meaning connection between sentences in a piece of spoken or written language. They are very important connective devices that a student needs to know about and be prepared to use. Conjuncts separate like conjunctions. They may serve to link like the components of a sentence but can do more than that. A conjunct takes off where a conjunction leaves off. Some commonly occurring conjuncts are- however, nevertheless, moreover, furthermore, what’s more, in addition, in fact, in brief, in sum, indeed, all the same, in other words, by the way, as a result, by contrast, on the other hand, meanwhile etc. While writing you may need to buttress your points by using some specific words for stylistic effect and conjuncts can be right at hand to provide such effect. For more on conjuncts, see Quirk et al, 1985. You can also read the editorial articles of some broadsheet newspapers. Below are examples of conjuncts in sentences:
However, those are the visitors to expect.
Those, however, are the visitors to expect.
Those are the visitors to expect, however.
Shifting the word may involve a shifting of emphasis, a different intonation, a different focusing of the message. Placing a connector in a particular place may mean you are doing some stylistic work on the sentence or language piece.
Conjuncts (phrases) - Conjuncts may be in phrases as in the examples below. They can be at the beginning, middle or end. Just as mentioned earlier, shifting the positions of conjuncts means shifting the position of the comma and emphasis.
In other words, we were fully occupied.
We were, in other words, fully occupied.
We were fully occupied, in other words.
Conjuncts (clauses) - Conjuncts could also be in clauses. Examples are:
To conclude, they were all prepared for the great event.
They were, to conclude, all prepared for the great event
They were all set for the great trip, to conclude.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Punctuate the following sentences.
In Africa an important celebration like marriage is not a matter for the nuclear family alone the members of the extended family also participate actively.
3.3 Disjuncts
Disjuncts are words, phrases or clauses that express opposition of ideas. They are readily detachable, but serve to make some kind of comment
on the ideas expressed.
Words e.g.
1. Naturally, he hated having to speak to her.
2. He, naturally, hated having to speak to her.
3. He hated having to speak to her, naturally.
Phrases e.g.
1. In all frankness, he is the one I prefer.
2. He is, in all frankness, the one I prefer.
3. He is the one I prefer, in all frankness.
Clauses e.g.
1. To tell the truth, we are not sure of him.
2. We are, to tell the truth, not sure of him.
3. We are not sure of him, to tell the truth.
3.4 Adjuncts
Adjuncts are words; phrases joined or added to an expression but are not a necessary part of it. They can also be words added to qualify or modify other words in a sentence. Some are adverbials. The most usual kinds of linking adjuncts are expressions of space and time.
Words e.g.
1. Tomorrow, we shall all visit him.
2. We shall, tomorrow, all visit him.
Phrases e.g.
1. In those days, that would be a taboo.
2. That would, in those days, be a taboo.
d. Commas can be used for separating vocatives (a noun or the special form of a noun used in some languages when addressing someone or something) e.g.
1. Bola, listen to what I have to say.
2. Listen, my friend, to what I have to say.
In all the examples given above, you will notice how the comma has effectively been used to give meaning relations to the expressions.
3.1 The Colon (:)
The colon is commonly used:
a. to link two clauses (the second being a restatement, an explanation or an expression of the first) within a compound or compound complex sentence e.g.
These men are a credit to their village and country: their good deeds will be remembered for long.
If you study the sentence above very well, you will notice that the second clause after the colon is an explanation of the first.
b. to introduce a list, in which case it is often preceded by namely, such as, etc e.g.
He spoke on several of the issues: shortage of liquid cash, poverty, injustice, unemployment, industrial unrest, and disease.
c. to introduce direct speech particularly in dramatic dialogue e.g.
He said: ‘I am the president of this association’
d. to introduce a quotation as in e.g.
She was very fond of those immortal words by Shakespeare: ‘Cowards die many times before their death’
3.2 The Dash (-)
The dash is used:
a. to mark off an informal insertion, particularly one with internal
commas e.g.
The girls - I should in fact call them the call girls- have now taken up arms.
b. to introduce a list, when a less formal mark than a colon is required e.g.
She had all she wanted – sharpeners, rubbers, pencils, rulers, ink, bags, and paper.
c. to introduce a summary statement after a list e.g.
We bought pencils, rubbers, pens, ink, rulers andpaper- in short, all we need.
A colon can replace the dash, I (c), but the colon will be considered more formal than the dash.
3.3 Semi-Colon (;)
The semi colon is a heavier version of the comma but it is less frequently needed than the comma as a punctuation mark. Aremo 1995 notes that it is commonly used to -
a. mark out the end of the first of two clauses linked by a coordinator in a compound or compound complex sentence e.g.
He was a very reasonable young man; nevertheless he found it but difficult to make it in life.
b. to link two or more clauses in a compound or compound– complex sentence e.g.
You certainly can come; it is everybody’s affair.
c. to mark out the boundary between coordinated clauses or phrases with internal comma punctuation for the sake of clarity e.g.
The woman, whom you spoke highly of, came; and we were all very happy to see her.
3.4 Brackets (Parentheses) ( )
Brackets are used, like dashes and commas, to set off an informal insertion from the rest of the sentence:
It is said that mercenaries (I mean hired soldiers from other countries) are fighting on the side of the rebels)
Please note that:
1. brackets and dashes are used to show more clearly than commas the status of an informal insertion
2. square brackets [ ] are used by a writer to enclose his own words inserted in a quotation to make its meaning clear e.g.
The students [Bola, Ajayi and Aina] have proved to the world what you are all capable of achieving.
3.5 Quotation marks or inverted commas (‘‘ )
Quotation marks may according to preference, be single ‘’ or “” . They are used-
a. to enclose direct speech e.g.
‘In any case’, said the principal, ‘Mary is a good girl’.
‘I’m happy you still can say such kind things about the little girl’ said Mary’s mother.
‘He said: ‘I am the land-lord here’
Please note that:
1. The two sets of quotation marks, one double and the other single are used for a quotation within a quotation e.g.
The witness said “He cried, ‘where have you kept the money?’”
2. Direct speech in dramatic dialogue is enclosed in quotation marks:
a. to enclose quotation e.g.
She was very fond of those immortal words by Shakespeare: ‘cowards die many times before their death’.
b. to enclose words or expressions that the writer does not wish to claim as his own e.g.
1. As a child, she really believed that what she saw on the moon was ‘a woman’s beautiful face’
2. It is unbelievable that ‘John told the chief to go to hell’
c. to enclose words and expressions that are unfamiliar or that are used in a special, not generally accepted sense e.g.
1. One can talk at length about this ‘primitive’ language.
2. It was all traceable to their leader’s ‘chop-chop’ mentality.
d to enclose the titles of stories, poems, articles, etc or issued as
separate publications e.g..
The Raiders’ was published in his first collection of short stories.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Write out four uses of quotation marks and support your answer with good examples.
3.6 Italics
In a hand written or typed manuscript, italics can be indicated through underlining. Italics are used:
a. for titles of books, magazines, newspapers and other works
published separately e.g..
The Daily times
The Guardian
b. titles of shorter works not issued as separate publications e.g.
short stories and poems are enclosed in quotation marks
c. for foreign words or expressions used in a text e.g.
The dramatis personae are found on the first page e.g.
It was evening again and he was back at the remaining bottle of
ogogoro
d. for words or expressions which the writer would like to be
carefully noted e.g.
The semi-colon may be linked to two or more clauses
e. for items (words, phrases etc) illustrating a point of usage e.g.
1. The man was here. (past tense)
2. The man is here. (present tense)
3.7 The Apostrophe (‘)
The apostrophe is used:
a. for indicating the genitive of some general pronouns e.g.
somebody’s dog
everybody’s affair
The apostrophe is not used for indicating the genitive of personal pronouns e.g.
my/mine her/hers your/yours
b. for indicating the genitive of nouns and noun phrases e.g.
the girl’s book
a child’s toy
children’s books
c. for marking omissions in reduced words and numbers e.g.
I’ll (= I will )
hasn’t (= has not)
It’s (= It is )
We’re (= We are - )
d. for indicating the plurals of numbers, letters and cited words or expressions e.g.
There are two O’s in ‘book’
The 7’s look like 1’s
In the 1980’s
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Some of the sentences below need apostrophe. Put them where they should be.
1. It is hers.
2. Dr Ojo thesis is missing from the Library.
3. He hasn’t been able to come back again.
4. I need some children story books.
5. Your’s is very beautiful.
3.8 The Hyphen
The hyphen is used to:
a. show when a single word has been broken at the end of one line
and completed on the next line e.g.
He came for the first time yesterday
Please note that the hyphen is placed at the end of the line on which the word is started not at the beginning of the following line
b. to link the component bases of some compound words i.e.
breath-taking
go-between
Please note that not all compounds are written with a hyphen. Some are written solid e.g. dressmaking and some are written open- e.g. tear gas. The same compound can sometimes be written in any of the three ways e.g. flower-pot, flowerpot, and flower pot.
c. to link the component words of a multi – word item used as a single pre-modifier e.g.
They were all seven -month -old –babies.
He adopted his usual- I don’t care attitude.
d. to separate some prefixes from the base (particularly when the base begins with a capital letter or when the word could otherwise be mispronounced e.g.
co-author
re-present (preset again)
pro-Iraq
3.9 Capital letters (ABC)
These are used at the beginning of:
a. the first word of a sentence e.g.
Today is her birthday.
You are all invited.
b. all proper nouns(names of specific people, places etc and words derived from them e.g.
Bola Ojo, China, Sunday January, Independence day
Please note that with proper nouns, a capital is normally used only at the beginning of the open class items (nouns, adjectives, adverbs) e.g.
(the) Department of English
(the ) National Assembly
The National Assembly members are two hundred in number
Words like committee, department, government state and university are spelt with a capital when they are part of the proper nouns or when they are used as substitute for the proper nouns but not when they are used as ordinary common nouns e.g.
The National Assembly is on recess.
A committee should be set up immediately.
The House Committee on petroleum matters recommended
the removal of its chairman.
c. all titles preceding proper nouns or titles used as substitutes for proper nouns e.g.
Princess Aina, Chief Okonkwo, Miss Olabode, The President, President Clinton
d. the first and the last word and each of the open class words (nouns, verbs etc) in the title of a book or article e.g.
The Beautiful Ones Are not Yet Born
Our Husband has gone Mad Again
e. Words of family relationship when used alone e.g.
Usually, Father does not like such display of arrogance but Mother only laughs at such.
Usually our father does not like such display of arrogance but our mother only laughs at such.
When used with the first name, the words are also spelt with a capital e.g.
I think Brother James will understand this.
James is a brother to Alice.
The personal pronoun ‘I’ is always written with a capital e.g.
I prefer to go to Marks and Spencer but I’ll ask my fiancé to go with me.
Some other punctuation marks are the ellipsis (…) and the caret (^) and these are used to indicate omissions in a sentence.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit is the one that completes the discussion on punctuation marks. We started with the colon and ended with just a mention of the ellipsis and the caret which are used to indicate omissions.
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Aremo, B. (1995). An Introduction to English Sentences (1). Ibadan, Nigeria: Caltop Publications Nigeria Ltd.
Aremo, B. (1997). An Introduction to English Sentences (2). Ibadan, Nigeria: Caltop Publications Nigeria Ltd.
Babalola, E.T. (2005). The Grammar of Paragraphs and the Mechanics of Good Written English in Moji Olateju & Lekan Oyeleye (eds.). Perspectives on Language and Literature. Ile-Ife, Nigeria: Obafemi Awolowo University. pp 269-284.
Quirk, R.G.; Greenbaum, G.N.; Leech and J.Svartvik (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of English. London: Longman
Zandvoort, R.W. (1967). A Handbook of English Grammar. London: Longman Group Limited.
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