INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to a detailed study of dramatic genres. You need this background to enable you appreciate different forms of drama in the course of your study. The classification is also necessary for both the playwright and the critics in their appreciation of dramatic composition.
3.1 Meaning of Dramatic Genre
Etymologically, the term genre is taken from the French language and it means type, kind, or form. In simple terms dramatic genre means type or kind of dramatic composition. Drama is grouped into distinct types, kinds or categories because there are qualities that are common to all dramatic compositions. There are also qualities that make each composition unique. It is these similarities and differences that determine each genre.
The dramatic genres include tragedy, comedy, tragi-comedy, melodrama, drame, mime, etc.
3.2 Tragedy
We are familiar with the words 'tragedy' and tragic as they are associated with misfortune. Usually, they are used to describe personal misfortunes that do not concern the rest of the society. For example, the breakdown of a marriage or death of a dear one in an accident or even natural causes could be described as tragic. Also, some public events that are unpleasant like the assassination of a head of state or a political leader, natural or human disasters like earthquakes, flood disasters, plane crashes and other such disasters are referred to as tragedies. In this unit we are not concerned with these tragedies or tragic' events in our daily lives but as they relate to dramatic compositions.
Tragedy according to the Oxford English Dictionary is “a play of a serious or solemn kind ... a very sad event, action or experience.” The last part of the definition explains why the word is used to describe misfortunes, natural and human disasters in everyday life. However, we will be concerned with the aspect of the definition that sees tragedy as a play of a serious or a solemn kind.
Tragedy in drama is believed to have originated from the Greek worship of Dionysius, the god of wine and fertility. During the festival, the dithyramb, a choral lyric in honour of the god is sang and danced around the altar by fifty men dressed in goat-skin (goat was the sacred animal of the god). This is perhaps from where tragedy got its name because in Greek, “tragoedia” meant goat song. During this song, a story about the god was improvised by the choral leader but later Thepsis stood out and instead of singing in honour of Dionysius, sang as Dionysius. However, the song continued but a minimal part of it was acted by one actor. As time went on, the spoken part was increased and Aeschylus added a second actor while Sophocles added a third actor. As time went on, the number of chorus decreased gradually as more actors increased. Thus tragedy was born. The scope of the plays increased as they started including myths concerning other gods. The plays became so popular that by 534 BC, the state gave official recognition to tragedy and instituted a prize for the best tragedy presented at the annual Donysian festival.
Tragedy is the most esteemed of all the dramatic genres. It has attracted many definitions and rules, from the days of Aristotle, who is the first person to write on the circumstances of and what tragedy should be, to the present day. According to him in his “Poetics”:
Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornaments, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the from of action not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting a proper purgation of these emotions.
Aristotle explains all the aspects of this definition and moves further to give the elements of tragedy as plot, character, thought, diction, music and spectacle. Try to read Aristotle’s “Poetics”. These principles have continued to influence the definition till date. However, some dramatic scholars agree with him while some others disagree with him.
In drama, tragedy is a serious play that deals with the misfortunes of man. It presents a man (tragic hero) who is not too virtuous or too vicious but one who aspires for higher ideals. He tries to improve himself and the world around him. In the course of this, he makes a mistake, or commits an error of judgment. This leads to his fall. Traditionally, in classical tragedies, the hero must be of noble birth, suffer and is overwhelmed in the end. Tragedy presents injustice, evil, pain, misfortunes, paradoxes and mysterious aspects of human existence.
Greek tragedy has a set pattern or structure. It starts with the prologue which introduces the play with the episodes of the play and the choral songs in between and finally the exodus. The play contains a “single integral plot” which is presented in a very short period with one setting. The action could be simple or complex and contains a reversal of fortune or discovery or both. They are very short plays and many of them were presented in trilogies. The tragic hero is drawn from princes and kings. He is a man who is not pre-eminently good, virtuous or vicious but who commits an error of judgment. Oedipus Rex is a good example of classical tragedy. It has a single plot, the story of how Oedipus killed his father and married his mother. The setting is just in front of the palace. Oedipus, the tragic hero is a king who by the end of the play, discovers the truth about himself, his fortune reverses from good to bad. His catastrophe is caused by his tragic flaw which is arrogance.
The plays were based on myth and legends drawn mainly from the legends of the house of Atreus and the events of the Trojan wars. They were presented as a part of a great festival and the state was involved. Music, songs and dances were important elements of the plays. To maintain a single setting, indoor actions and violence were reported on stage. As part of a religious festival, the plays were used to show how vices like arrogance and pride lead men to destruction. The gods also play important roles in Greek tragedy. However, the dramatists differ in their attitudes to the gods as characters in their plays.
Many critics argue that there are no tragedies in the modern period. The argument is based on the fact that many playwrights do not adhere to the Aristotelian principles of tragedy especially as regards the treatment of the subject matter, tragic hero and the language.
Modern playwrights feel that they should not be restricted by any rules. According to them, drama reflects the society, so they should reflect their society in the works. In the modern society, little or no attention is paid to kings, princes and their exploits so a poor man who is hard working can rise to esteem. The society also encourages him to rise. He also has the capacity to fall into misfortune through an error of judgment and according to Arthur Miller, since kings and monarchs are no longer available, tragedy should be based “... on the heart and spirit of the average man” (Dukore: 897). Contemporary issues and human beings should, therefore, be treated in tragedy.
The important factor is that the tragic hero pursues a particular goal he believes in relentlessly to its logical conclusion even if he loses his life in the pursuit. Tragedy attempts, therefore, to ask some basic questions about human existence like, is there justice in the world?
3.3 Comedy
We use the words 'comedy' and comic to describe something that is funny in our everyday lives. These include a joke, or a fantastic story that is full of nonsense, or an absurd appearance that makes us giggle, smile or laugh. Comedy is not inherent in things or people but the way things/people are perceived. Comedy is a deliberate presentation of events/experiences drawn from real life but not the same with real life. We should therefore not expect dramatic comedy to be the same as real life.
Generally, the plays have good endings or resolutions, so when a play ends happily, we refer to it as comedy. In most comedies, the principal characters begin in a state of opposition either to one another or to their world or both. By the end of the play, their opposition is replaced by harmony. Aristotle in his “Poetics” insisted that in tragedy men are shown “better than they are”, while in comedy “worse than they are” . For him it is an artistic imitation of men of inferior moral bent, not in every way but only in so far as their shortcomings are ludicrous. These short comings cause no pain.
In the classical period there was no mixture of genres Horace maintains that tragic characters must be noble while comic characters are ignoble and of lower birth and foolish. Moliere believed that his audience could learn from the dramatization of ridiculous and universal types. Comedy therefore teaches through laughter. Philip Sidney, in “Arts Poetica”, sees it as an imitation of common errors of life which is presented in the most ridiculous and scornful manner so that the spectator is anxious to avoid such errors himself. It should aim at being delightful though not necessarily by provoking laughter. Ben Jonson also believes that laughter does not really help to achieve the aims of comedy but may subvert those aims. He draws his theme from human errors and follies. He insists that the playwright should attempt to improve moral life and arouse gentle affections. John Dryden insists that comedy should portray the eccentricity of character while Northrop Frye says that lightness of touch is the hallmark of comedy.
We recognize comedy through its style, characterization, diction and other elements of style. The purpose of comedy is to delight, to teach and to entertain the audience through the presentation of characters, situations and ideas in a ridiculous manner. This helps to keep man close to sanity, balance and to remind him of human frailties. It helps to keep him humble and mindful of what he is rather than what he might wish himself to be.
Modern scholars believe that the purpose of comedy is to correct vices therefore should not exclude any class. Satire is an important instrument in comedy because nothing reforms majority of men like the portrayal of their faults. It is easy for people to endure being made fun of. Many people may have no objection to being considered wicked but are not willing to be considered ridiculous. The audience is thus expected to learn from the stupidity of the characters and try to avoid such pitfalls because nobody likes to be made an object of ridicule.
Generally speaking, comedy adopts a different approach from that of serious drama. It presents the incongruity in people and situations. In doing this, the playwright suspends the natural laws; for instance, a man falls flat on the floor but does not really hurt himself. Comedy is usually presented as a moral satire used to attack vices like greed, hypocrisy, lust, laziness, or ignorance. The aim is to correct social ills, social injustice or to ridicule a particular human fault or social imbalance. It thrives on exaggeration of situation and character to show mankind worse than it really is.
Since drama is a conscious and deliberate presentation of events/experience based mostly on real life but not the same with real life, one should, therefore, not expect comedy to be the same with real life. We recognize comedy, through its style, characterization and dialogue. In both real life and drama, comedy should indicate a kind of pleasure which finds physical expression in laughter or smile.
3.4 Melodrama
3.4.1 Definition
The word melodrama is coined from melo (music) and dran (drama). It is, therefore, a play that utilizes music extensively. But the utilization of music is not the only factor in melodrama, what really makes it melodrama is its portrayal of the protagonist and the antagonist. The protagonist suffers a lot but triumphs in the end while the antagonist suffers. So, melodrama can be defined as a play that has serious action caused by a villain and a destruction of the villain which brings about a happy resolution in the play. The hero is usually involved in very dangerous circumstances but is rescued or he disentangles himself at the last possible moment. The rescuer is usually a benevolent character who identifies himself with the good role of the protagonist. An ideal melodrama, therefore, must have a protagonist and an antagonist. The protagonist always fights the antagonist who is usually poised to destroy goodness. In the end, the characters are easily identified by the audience. The protagonist is admired and the antagonist is hated.
It is this identification by the audience that provides the grounds for poetic justice because the antagonist loses in the end. This explains why some critics insist that melodrama is an honest dramatic form. According to them, it is the only form of drama that expresses the truth of human condition as they are perceived most of the time. This is a condition where vice is condemned and virtue applauded or where the bad man is punished and the good man rewarded.
Like tragedy, melodrama deals with characters in critical situations. The main difference is in the point of view. Outwardly, it tries to create the illusion of real people at genuine risk or in jeopardy but the playwright manipulates the play in such a way that it ends with a reprieve or a rescue, a reform or a triumph for the protagonist. There is always an escape from danger in the plot line. In melodrama, there is always serious excitement, suspense and thrills for the audience. The plot is built on tension and great excitement but this is transitory and lends no substantial significance to the action of the play.
The plot therefore contains stories with colourful but brave characters. It creates opportunities for strong sensational scenes, powerful emotions, and strong characters that struggle against deadly odds. Sometimes they are trapped in precarious situations but they must hold on until there is help ultimately.
The melodramatic hero is usually a one-dimensional figure who pursues a goal in a straightforward manner. The opposition comes from the world around him. He does not always think well before taking an action. Consequently, he gets involved in entanglements or dangerous situations which a more rational person might avoid. The characters are usually simple in mind and heart and are conditioned or influenced by their backgrounds and environment. Melodrama contains most of the serious conflicts and crises of daily life. In melodrama, we are resigned as we realize that our failures are not our fault but caused by others and our victories are as a result of help from other people. It is a serious play because most of the time, they rely on strong story lines but lacks the essential magnitude in character and the action is usually over exaggerated.
3.4.2 Characteristics of Melodrama
1. It looks at human beings as a whole. People are expected to interact and help one another in the society. This explains why the protagonist is usually assisted or aided by someone for him to triumph or succeed.
2 It sees human beings as encountering and enduring outer conflicts and not inner ones in a generally hostile and wicked world.
3 These human conflicts end in victory. Melodramatic characters either win or lose. However, in the spirit of poetic justice, the protagonist usually wins despite the difficulties he encounters in the course of the action to show that good triumphs over evil.
4 There is an over simplification of human experiences which are usually exaggerated in such a way that the main thesis of the play is made transparent.
5 It treats a serious subject matter in a serious manner, though exaggerated.
3.4.3 Comparison between Melodrama and Tragedy
1. In tragedy, the tragic hero commits an error of judgment which leads to his downfall. In melodrama, the hero faces overwhelming problems but despite his sufferings, he triumphs in the end.
2. Melodrama is usually episodic and contains elements of charm or magic. It, therefore, lacks the honesty of tragedy.
3. While tragedy evokes fear and pity, melodrama arouses suspense, pathos, terror and sometimes hatred. In tragedy, there is genuine pity and fear as the audience empathies with the hero. Pity in melodrama borders on sentimentality and emotion and when fear is portrayed, it is usually superficial. Pity and fear in tragedy are honest and lead to catharsis (purgation of emotions).
4 There is recognition for the hero in tragedy but in melodrama, the protagonist wins or triumphs always.
5 Tragedy confronts good and evil with unblinking honesty, while melodrama escapes from life. Tragedy considers eternal spiritual problems and ideals but melodrama deals with the transitory material/physical issues or problems.
6 Tragedy is known as a serious dramatic genre but the seriousness in melodrama is only a pretense to create theatrical effects for the audience.
3.5 Tragi-comedy
You have seen that tragedy is a serious play that ends on a sad note, while comedy ends happily. In traditional tragedy, playwrights are not allowed to bring in any comic action. If you read Oedipus Rex, for instance, you will observe that the atmosphere is tense from the beginning to the end. As time went on, even from the Elizabethan period, comic characters were included in tragic plays. This is called comic relief. Tragi-comedy is a play that mixes both comic and tragic elements in equal proportion of each. It therefore elicits both tragic and comic emotions.
3.6 Drame
Dame is a term of the modern period given to a category of dramatic literature which deals with man in common place and contemporary circumstance. The genre is presumed to have evolved from the French drama. The French regarded it as a play of serious intent dealing with contemporary issues and lives. Playwright like Ibsen, Chekhov, Osborne and many other modern writers are considered as the people that made extensive use of this dramatic genre.
In their plays, they contemplate man with his dealings with contemporary issues and relationships in his society. Drame is noted for its great diversity, technical experimentation and a mixture of general forms of writing. Sometimes, it is difficult to classify it as either tragedy or comedy. The playwright here is not concerned with the genre but concerned with the treatment of social issues to uplift his society. It is a product of modem drama that thrives on innovations and experi- mentations.
Drame has a relationship with other dramatic genres. It relates to melodrama in the sense that it involves the spectator in action through the identification of characters. It also makes extensive use of suspense and tension. However, it differs from melodrama because its interest is on political ideas and other serious issues and this brings it close to tragedy. It has the capacity for provoking thought and discussion on the issues raised after the presentation (reading) of the play.
Melodrama has characters that are easily identifiable. Drame also has the same. But the difference is that characters in melodrama are divided into protagonist and antagonist for easy audience identification. Drame is close to tragedy with its concern with human conduct and the place of drama in the modern world. It is also close to tragedy with regards to its honest treatment of issues, especially with its portrayal of characters with adequate human (realistic) motivation. It is different from tragedy mainly because of its lack of elevation, narrowness of vision, and, sometimes its lack of universality in its emphasis on contemporary life.
3.7 Farce
Farce which is referred to as comedy of situation, is a humorous play on a trivial theme usually one that is familiar to the audience. The themes that are treated in farce include mistaken identity, elaborate misunderstanding, switched costume (men in women’s clothes) heroes forced under tables, misheard instructions, discoveries, disappearances and many such situations.
Farce is not considered an intellectual drama because it does not appeal to the mind. It deals with physical situations and does not explore any serious idea. It presents physical activities that grow out of situations like the presence of something when something is not expected or the absence of something when something is expected.
Farce does not treat serious social issues. Sometimes it does not tell a full story or present a logical plot. A good example is somebody walking and slipping on a banana peel and falling in an exaggerated manner. The main objective is to entertain by evoking laughter.
It presents mainly mechanical actions to show that human life is mechanical, aggressive, and coincidental. .
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
(1) Discuss the characteristics of melodrama.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Categorization in drama helps us in our study of dramatic literature. To a large extent it helps us in the appreciation of different forms of drama.
5.0 SUMMARY
You have learnt from this unit that there are different forms of drama. Your knowledge here will help you to understand both dramatic literature and dramatic performances. You will then be in a position to understand why some actors act the way they do in certain circumstances.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What differentiates tragedy from melodrama?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Crow, Brian (1983). Studying Drama. Ikeja: Longman.
Hagler, A. M. (1959). A Source Book in Theatrical History. New York: Dover.
Molinari, Casare (1975). Theatre through the Ages. London: Cassell.
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