Everything on Phonological Processes in English Language

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Phonological Processes 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We saw in Unit 2, the meaning of, and procedure in, phonology. In this unit, you are taught the coverage of phonology, its system and its structure.

3.1 Phonological Study: The Coverage

We have already known that when we talk about phonology, we are concerned with the way the sound system of a particular language is organized. We have also known that when we talk about the sound system of a given language we usually mean the number of phonemes or distinctive and significant sounds as well as the variations of sounds which may be occasioned by the phonological environment in which the sounds of such a language occur. This issue of variations is sometimes simplified to mean the position in which a given sound occurs in a word: whether word initially, word medially or word finally. All of the above may be referred to as the segmental phonology of a particular language.

In addition to the above, phonological studies are also concerned with features such as those of accentuation or rhythm, pitch, intonation or nasalization(-delete, not a suprasegment in English) which extend to more than one segment in an utterance. When this happens the phonological study is said to be concerned with nonsegmental phonology. The term suprasegmental or prosodic is also used in some sources, particularly the early ones… to describe what happens in relation to nonsegmental phonology. The prefix –supra – suggests that the features are simply attached to the segments, whereas they run over a segment. So the term nonsegmental is apparently more descriptive of the functions of features such as intonation and rhythm. Module 4 of your course is devoted to aspects of nonsegmental phonology of English.

Self-assessment Exercise

Briefly distinguish between segmental and nonsegmental phonology.

s3.2 Phonological System

A phonological system is generally concerned with phonological units which are significant and/or contrastive and are therefore differentially replaceable with other significant units within a given language. Such units constitute the core of the phonological system. A major feature of the phonological system is that the units in each system have the function of distinguishing or isolating words and changes in words as a result of occurrence in mutually inclusive environments. They have little or no opportunity of influencing each other with regard to pronunciation since they enter vertical arrangements.

Phonological units in vertical arrangement are usually said to be those in paradigmatic distribution. They are separate and are realizable generally in isolation. If we take the words (a) port (b) keen and (c) milk for example and arrange the contrastive sound units paradigmatically, we notice the following:

B

K

i:

N

An analysis of these entries shows that in A the /p/ cannot be said to be aspirated neither can we claim that the voiceless consonant /t/ at the bottom of the first

arrangement has had the effect of reducing the length of /口:/ in any way. For the vowel sound in B there can be no claim that the /n/ at the bottom has led to the slightest attempt at nasalizing /i:/. In C the quality of the liquid lateral /l/ does not suggest that it has occurred in the middle of the word! It is as clear as it would have been if it had occurred at the beginning. All these show that items in paradigmatic distribution which form the core of the phonological system do not normally influence each other.

3.3 Phonological Structure

A phonological structure is generally concerned with phonological units which co- occur together in a horizontal arrangement. Such co-occurrence is generally known to exhibit reciprocal influences as a result of nearness to each other. For instance, if a long sound occurs at the end of a word, it is likely to remain long in a normal pronunciation of words like:

bar /ba:/

see /si:/

we /wi:/

But if these long sounds are arrested by consonants, for instance if we now have barred /ba:d/

seen /si:n/

weed /wi:d/

The durations are slighted affected. If they were arrested by voiceless consonants, the durations of /a:/, /i:/ and /i:/ in bar, see and we would have been greatly reduced. These facts will become clearer to you when your programme takes you to a study of synchronic sound change. Also expect further clarification when we get to Unit 12, Module 4. If however, we go back to our examples under phonological system –port, keen and milk, we are likely to understand what happens under phonological structure. The arrangement would then be syntagmatic (as against the one of phonological system which we had as paradigmatic). The syntagmatic arrangement is horizontal thus:

port /pɔ: t/

keen /ki:n/

milk /mɪlk

In the first illustration, the influence of / t / ending the word /pɔ: t/ is to reduce the length of /ɔ:/ drastically.

In the second illustration, the influence of the nasal /n/ is to create a situation of partial nasalization for the vowel /i:/.

In the third illustration, the occurrence of the liquid (lateral) /l/ word medially shows that ordinarily the /l/ cannot be clear, it must be dark or velarized. This is so because in English the clear /l/ occurs only word initially. Medially and finally, the /l/ becomes dark and is represented thus: /ɔ/??. Milk would then be shown to be /mɔɔk/.?!

Indeed, a lot of reciprocal influences occur with items in phonological structure and with syntagmatic distribution which marks the core of the phonological structure. However, we shall take a look at two more issues in connection with the phonological structure. These are complementary distribution and free variation.

3.4.1 Complementary Distribution

Within the phonological structure of English, there are sounds which enter into complementary distribution. Such sounds are normally allophones of phonemes.

Allophones in complementary distribution are those which cannot be replaced by other allophones without bringing about a change in the meaning of the words(- allophones don’t result in change in meaning, that’s why they are called ALLOPHONES, OR ELSE they would be PHONEMES IN THAT LANGUAGE!!) concerned. Put differently, sounds in complementary distribution occur in mutually exclusive environments: they have no contexts in common.

If we take the /l/ sound, we notice that word initially it is always clear /l/, word medially and finally it is usually dark or velarized: [ɫ]. So, normal speakers of English cannot use the clear /l/ word medially or finally just as they cannot use the dark [ɫ] word initially. Notice that the dark [ɫ] is usually written with a tilde across it.

In a similar way, if we take three words: cat, Kate and caught, we notice that each starts with [k] which is an allophone of /k/. But the [k] in cat is “different” from the

[k] in Kate and both are “different” from the [k] in caught. But the differences are not significant: the /k/ sounds adjust themselves to the nearby vowels - /æ/ in /kæt/, /ei/, in /keit/ and /ɔ:/ in /kɔ:t/. This is the sense in which the [k] sounds are allophones of /k/.

3.4.2 Free Variation

Within the phonological system of English there are contrastive items which may be used not for the purpose of bringing about a change in the meaning of a given word, but with the intention of bringing about a change in pronunciation. When this happens, the items within the phonological system are seen to operate within the phonological structure. Thus the words.

embrace may be pronounced [ 'embreis] or [ ' mbreis] 

either may be pronounced ['ai:ð ə] or ['i:ð ə]

economics may be pronounced ['i:kn miks] or ['ekn miks]

It should be noted that free variation is not a universal event: there are many people who stick to the pronunciations they had learnt from the beginning or who are not easily influenced by speakers around them. But every speaker has the capacity to notice when sounds are used in free variation.

4.0 CONCLUSION

You have, in this unit, been exposed to coverage of phonology. You have also learnt additional very important issues in this unit: phonological system and phonological structure.

5.0 SUMMARY

The main issues discussed in this unit are:

(i) the coverage of phonology

(ii) phonological system – the core

(iii) phonological structure – syntagmatic/complementary distribution; free

variation

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

Briefly distinguish between sounds in complementary distribution and those in free variation.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Eka, D. (1996). Phonological Foundations 1: English; Uyo Scholars Press

Eka, D. and Inyang Udofot (1996) Aspects of Spoken Language. Calabar: BON Universal.

Lyons,John (1990): Language and Linguistics: An Introduction; Cambridge University Press.