INTRODUCTION
Two thirds of the world’s population is bilingual to some extent, hence from an international perspective speaking more than one language is the norm rather than the exception. Bilingualism is a feature of a linguistically heterogeneous community, i.e. a community, which has several speakers of different languages. The tendency is that as these language speakers have contact, they would learn each other’s languages. Bilingualism is more common in the developing countries of the world, especially the former colonies, where the local languages exist side by side with the languages of the colonial masters.
In this Unit, we shall be examining the notion of Bilingualism, its meaning, the types, how people come to be bilinguals, and how languages are assigned roles and statuses in bilingual settings.
3.1 What is Bilingualism?
Bilingualism can be seen from two different perspectives: from the individual’s perspective and the societal perspective. In essence, we have individual bilingualism and societal bilingualism. When an individual in a community possesses two languages, he/she is described as a bilingual. Likewise, when in a society, two languages dominate others and most of the dwellers in that community speak or use those languages in communication, we can call that society bilingual. It is important to note that an individual, who is bilingual may reside in a society, which is monolingual. Likewise, in a bilingual society, it is not all the residents that are necessarily bilingual.
In the case of societal bilingualism, the two dominant languages become the primary means of communication because they have been assigned significant roles in the society. For instance, in Nigeria, English is dominant because it is the legacy left behind by our colonial masters. It is also the language of unity, i.e., the language that unites the different speakers in Nigeria. Most Nigerians are bilingual because they have their mother tongues, which they have acquired in their immediate community and they also have English, which is the country’s official language.
Definitions of bilingualism range from a minimal proficiency in two languages, to an advanced level of proficiency, which allows the speaker to function and appear as a native-like speaker of both languages. Persons may describe themselves as bilingual but this may refer only to an ability to converse and communicate orally. Others may be proficient in reading in one or more languages. To be ‘bilingual’ means different things to different people.
So, a definition of bilingualism will need to acknowledge the learner’s proficiency, the purposes for which they use the languages, and the contexts in which they use their languages. The young child entering school may be called bilingual but it may be that he or she only speaks their home language for domestic and familial purposes and that English is the preferred language for communication outside the home. A recently arrived asylum seeking pupil may have some level of literacy in English but may be unable to converse or use spoken English in the classroom context. Many pupils described as 'bilingual' may in fact routinely use three languages or more.
A common definition of bilingualism is “a native-like control of two languages”. This definition was given by Bloomfield (1933). Another one is “the point where the speaker of one language can produce complete meaningful utterances in the other language: (Haugen, 1953)
3.1.1 Types of Bilingualism
Balanced vs. Non-balanced Bilingualism
In terms of purpose, bilingualism may be described as balanced or non- balanced. Balanced bilingualism refers to the notion of having equal proficiency in two languages across a range of contexts. It means the individual uses the two languages for the same amount of functions. Non-balance bilingualism is the one in which the individual uses the languages for different functions. Balanced bilingualism is very rare, while non-balanced bilingualism is the norm in most bilinguals. To expect someone to be equally proficient in two languages is a simplistic and unrealistic viewpoint.
3.2 Coordinate, Subordinate and Incipient Bilingualism
Individual bilinguals can be described on the basis of the extent or degrees of their bilingualism. Rubin (1970) identifies the three types of bilingualism we are discussing in this section.
A coordinate bilingual is a person who is able to speak two different languages and understand them well. Such a bilingual has near native- like competence in the two languages. In other words, whenever they speak either of the two languages, listeners do not easily identify the one that is their mother tongue.
Subordinate bilinguals are fluent in one of the two languages, but is able to speak but not fluent in the other one. Interference is easily discernible in the speech of a subordinate bilingual.
Incipient bilinguals speak one of the two languages that exist in the community fluently but only understand the other one partially. This is common among people who have lived long enough in a community to understand the language but do not make any appreciable effort to speak the language.
Other types of bilingualism, which people have identified, are as follows:
Dominant bilingualism - where one of the languages is used most often and is the one in which the speaker operates with the greatest proficiency.
Semilingualism- a controversial term used to describe people whose two languages are at a low level of development.
Prestigious bilingualism- typically, but not exclusively referring to those who speak two high status languages.
3.3 Multilingualism
Multilingualism simply refers to the ability to speak more than two languages or simply proficiency in many languages. Just like bilingualism, it could be seen in individuals or the entire society. A multilingual person, in a general sense is anyone who can communicate in more than one language, be it active (through speaking and writing) or passive (through listening and reading). More specifically, the terms bilingual and trilingual are used to describe comparable situations in which two or three languages are involved.
3.4 Diglossia
Diglossia, according to Ferguson (1959) refers to the circumstance where each language in a bilingual society is systematically employed in certain domains and events. For instance each of the languages in a bilingual community has to be assigned certain functions. The functions of the two languages may indicate whether they are high or low languages. In such instances, the high language is reserved for formal public use, and often given the function of official language. The use of the low variety is limited to spoken situations at home and in casual conversations. For instance in Nigeria, English is assigned the role of the official language – the language of education, politics, the media, trade, and so forth, while Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba are assigned the role of regional languages.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. Identify a bilingual community in your area and describe how
bilingualism works in that community.
ii. Identify 10 friends who are bilingual. What type of bilingual are they?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Bilingualism is a phenomenon generally discussed in Sociolinguistics. It is a feature of linguistically complex communities. In defining it, we approached it from two different dimensions: the individual and the society. In societies where there is bilingualism, the government further strengthens it by assigning roles to languages. Individuals who are bilinguals have different degrees of mastery of the two languages.
5.0 SUMMARY
The unit focuses on the concept of bilingualism. We examined the various definitions of bilingualism from different scholars and discussed the different types of bilingualism. Lastly, we examined diglossia: a situation in which the two languages in a bilingual society are assigned different roles.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. What is bilingualism?
2. Identify and discuss types of bilingualism.
3. Explain the term Diglossia.
4. Write an essay on Bilingualism in Nigeria.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Bloomfield. (1933). Language. London: Allen and Unwin.
Ferguson. (1959). ‘Diglossia’ . Word, 15, pp 325 – 340.
Haugen. (1953). The Norweigian Language in America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
Rubin, J. (1970). “Acquisition and Proficiency”. In: J. B. Pride, & J.
Holmes, (Eds). Sociolinguistics. Hammonsworth: Penguin.
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