INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you and I will take a trip to old England and relive major events that occurred there. These events are a rich source of material for you to ponder on and write about. An important fact to know is that centuries ago, the whole of Europe, including England, was ruled by the Romans, who were quite enlightened and were also lovers of the written word and the Arts. The major language of communication was Latin. However, the Romans did not have it easy maintaining a peaceful rule over the world of Europe; there were many countries that regularly staged wars to be free from the gripping rule of the Romans. From the 2nd century therefore, the Romans‟ rule became unpopular- they had lost many of their soldiers and their finances had grown lean from trying to fight wars with many tribes who wanted to be autonomous of their rule. As the 5th century gradually rolled to an end, the Roman Empire all over Europe started its gradual decline, and this eventually ushered in the medieval era. It is important you have this background information in order to understand better the medieval period, especially as it occurred in England. The English literature as we have it today is shaped by the events of the old English or medieval era. The medieval period describes a time in Europe when all aspects of the society – political, economic and socio-cultural – were patterned after a body of beliefs and philosophy that were mainly religious in outlook. This is true of every country, state and community all over the world. There are always stages of development – at the physical, moral and social levels. Try to ask questions and read about your hometown or state history and you will observe this progression, the change from one stage to the other, usually referred to as development. In world history, a thousand years (at the least) usually make up a period. Just like many origin stories about communities, there have been many submissions about when the medieval period started; the 3rd to 10th centuries are usually proffered by many authors, with no one sure about the exact date. However, over time, the medieval period is believed by many to have existed in Europe from the fall of the Roman Empire in 500AD when the Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus, was deposed, to the beginning of the Renaissance period in Italy in early 15th century.
The word, „medieval‟ , is from the Latin language and it means, „middle age‟. In other words, this period was flanked by two periods, before and after it respectively: the classical period and the modern age. You should know that each literary period exhibits peculiar characteristics which make it unique and in a class of its own. But this is not always so in the strictest sense; periods borrow certain features from the one before it and practise these in a more pronounced manner.
The medieval era emphasised religion and most of its writings revolved around God and morality. Much attention was also placed on values and the practice of good works, and the individual conscientiously adheres to these values. You can relate this belief system to that of any ethnic nationality in Africa whose value system is known. The attainment of Heaven was the ultimate goal, as the literary works of English medieval period show.
This unit will look at the medieval period in England – its people, taste, lifestyle, values and philosophy. Why England? Don‟t forget that the literature you study in school is known as Literature in English, or its former term, English Literature. This is because English as a language belongs primarily to the English, whose home is England. That is why till today we still study in our higher institutions the literature of the English, because really, the Literature in English we know today, which is more encompassing as it involves literatures from other countries, stems from English Literature.
This module will pay particular attention to the medieval period in England and major political and natural events that influenced the writings in the era.
So, are you ready for a trip into old England in the medieval times? Alright, be alert; get your jotter or notepad ready, just in case you have to write some important points for later revision and possible recall.
3.1 The Early Middle Ages (The Dark Ages)
„The Dark Ages‟ is a term used to describe the medieval era in European history from 476 – 1066 AD. It was first used by a 16th century Italian Cardinal and historian, Ceasar Baronius, in his 12-volume book titled, Annales Ecclesiastici. The book gives a detailed and chronological history of the Catholic Church; however, Baronius was stuck when he got to the medieval era. He found that there hardly exist any readily accessible information and data of that period. In frustration, he labelled that era the “Dark Age”, to describe the lack of materials and information, as knowledge was kept in the hands of few people. What reason can you give for the lack of documentation of the early middle period in England? The answer is not farfetched. Don‟t forget that we had earlier seen the collapse of the Roman Empire all over Europe. What do you think will happen when a generally perceived overbearing government is sacked? Many of the smaller states or kingdoms will fight to have independent status and also try to annex weaker states as part of their own. So this period saw invasions and counter invasions. Europe became one great mass of movements: battles, conquests, agreements, invasions, secessions, to mention a few. The situation was not much different in England. Documentation of records and history was far from the minds of many people during this period. This exercise is possible when there is relative peace, stable and united government.
With the exit of the Romans, political and social upheavals occurred, and this affected the economy of many kingdoms, including England. Moreover, England‟s military could not withstand the more advanced armies of other regions; so many parts of England fell under the rule of other countries. For instance, the east of England was dominated by the Angles, Anglian culture, and the south was overpowered by the Saxons. However, there were some conquests of England that changed its history, culture and language. The most prominent ones were the conquest of large areas of England by King Penda of Mercia in 7th century; the Vikings carried out sustained and veracious attacks on England between 789 and 856 AD; then the Danish Great Army also invaded England and captured York. But the English fought valiantly for control of different parts of their kingdoms, especially under the able leadership of Alfred of Wessex, who pushed back many of the invaders and brought almost the whole of England under his rule. But with his death, and the reign of his son, Edgar, came many succession disputes, political disruptions and economic imbalance. In all of these, do you think there was any creative writing going on? The events occurring all over England provided sufficient materials to write about but did this early medieval period, the „dark age‟, produce any writer?
The medieval period had a rich intellectual environment made up of many writers and creative works, some of which are still being referred to today. Through the tumultuous events that emanated from the fall of the Roman Empire, England eventually settled into an era that had God at the centre. This, coupled with the wars and counter wars of the pre-medieval era, provided sufficient material for writers to write about. Exploring all the genres of literature, men and women of the period churned out many writings: essays, poetry, plays, novels, prayers, homilies and hymns that were both religious and secular in nature. However, a bulk of these writings was anonymous, that is, no names were ascribed to individual works. Two reasons may be given for this practice; many of these writings were retold versions, copied or embellished from original sources of Catholic clerics. In spite of the creativity involved in the re-telling, these authors ascribed the ownership to the original writers. Secondly, even in cases where the writings were original literary works, their authors saw themselves as channels of God‟s wisdom. A popular Old England medieval work, Beowulf, had no name of any author ascribed to it. So also was an all-time favourite, King Arthur. Others included Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and The Pearl. One of the most popular authors of this era, whose literary works are still been studied and analysed all over the world today is Geoffrey Chaucer. He was a prolific writer who produced many plays, among which are the Legend of Good Women and The Canterbury Tales. We shall talk more about him in Module II. Other popular authors whose writings made much impact on the peoples and their beliefs were Thomas Aquinas and Anselm of Canterbury.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. List 3 characteristics that are peculiar to the medieval era.
ii. Why was the medieval period referred to as the „Dark Ages‟?
3.2 The High Middle Ages (1066 - 1272)
With successive crises in England, William Duke of Normandy invaded in 1066 and defeated Harold in the famous battle of Hastings and occupied the Southern part of England. As a result of the occupation of England, revolts followed and Norman control of York was established, with the Norman lords taking the confused opportunity in the region to attack and occupy South and North Wales. When William Normandy died in 1087, England became the largest part of Anglo-Norman territory, maintaining a stronghold frontier of Wales and other Normandy‟s conquered areas of England.
However, established Norman Conquest of England gave way to the scramble for the throne, leading to violent conflicts between those who claimed inheritance to the throne and other noble supporters. For instance, William II, who inherited the throne, died in 1100in the process of the conflict of assertion and precedence with his cousins, Stephen and Aumale. Also, in spite of Robert‟s claims to the throne, his younger brother, Henry I, took over the reign of power, leading to the life imprisonment of Robert after his defeat at Tinchebrai. The subsequent revolt that followed was masterminded by Robert‟s son, Clito, until he died in 1128, a date that coincided with the white ship disaster that claimed the life of Henry‟s legitimate son.
The succession crisis to the English throne continued when Stephen of Blois, Henry‟s nephew, seized the throne in 1135 but in the immediate disputation that followed by Matilda, Henry‟s daughter, civil war broke out. In the flaming violence that ensured, Henry, Matilda‟s son, appealed for peaceful settlement at Winchester and was enthroned asking in 1154.
Henry of Anjou was the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Matilda. He started the Plantagenet rule of England, that is, he was the first Plantagenet monarch of England, and he took up the title of Henry II. The Plantagenet ruled England for 250 years, from 1154 to 1377, the last king being Edward III. Henry II was a powerful king, well-loved but also known for his ferocious temper. The royal authority under Henry improved the economy of England and fortified England‟s borders in Scotland and Wales, but also used the country‟s acquired wealth to embattle its rivals in France. One of the highlights of his reign was his quest to maintain stronger control over the Church, which the latter resisted. He made one of his closest friends, Thomas Becket, a priest, in 1162, the Archbishop of Canterbury, in order that through him, the English monarch would gain total control of the Church of England. But Thomas Becket resisted this agenda of Henry II. This made the two friends bitter enemies and Becket had to run to France on exile, for fear of being killed by his monarch friend. He was eventually murdered by four knights of King Henry II when he was on the altar steps of Canterbury Cathedral. The king‟s time and resources were also engaged in crushing succession revolts in Ireland and France. Henry‟s son, Richard I, was enthroned as King of England in 1189, after, in connivance with Phillip II of France, they forced Henry II to declare him as the next king of England. Nicknamed Coeur de Lion, a French term meaning, the Lionheart, he was popular for his bravery and skill in military expeditions. He ruled England for ten years, but was only present for about seven months, as he spent most of his time and England‟s resources in fighting wars and crusades. He died in 1199 while involved in one of the battles against France.
Richard ‟s brother, John, ruled England from 1199 and set out to reclaim and annex Normandy and parts of Aquitaine. With the support of his English baron friends, a powerful political group of noblemen in Medieval England, who could make or mar the monarchy, he launched an aggressive and expensive campaign of repossession in 1215. One of the highlights of his reign was the Children‟s Crusade of 1212, which saw many French and German children going on a pilgrimage to the Holy Lands. However, this ended in disaster as many of the children were turned back, captured, or sold by the Turks. Strong willed and given to uncontrollable fits of temper, King John murdered his nephew, Arthur, in 1203, who was a strong contender to the throne. This action displeased many of his subjects and political supporters, especially his English baron friends. To make matters worse, he not only imposed heavy taxes on the feudal lords, many of whom were his baron friends, he also seized all the lands and most of the properties belonging to the Church. In retaliation, Pope Innocent III suspended church services in England and in 1213, publicly announced that King John was no longer fit to rule England. Moreover, the English barons were already dissatisfied with the king‟s style of governance, and decided to withdraw their allegiances to him. To forestall the move to dispose of him, John agreed to a meeting with the barons in June 1215. At the meeting, the barons presented to him a document listing their rights as feudal lords and specifying particular actions to curb royal power. This document is called the Magna Carta, or the Great Charter. The king approved of this document by placing his seal on it, thereby proclaiming the Charter into law. However, King John upheld the Magna Carta for a few weeks and was able to convince the Pope to nullify it. This led to the First Barons War in 1216 in which King John was killed.
Henry III was the eldest son of King John, and he was only nine years old when his father died. Because he was still young to govern a country certain noblemen ruled England, chief among whom were William Marshal, the Earl of Pembroke, and Hubert de Burgh. In 1234, when he came of age, he started to rule England. His rule was marked by dissatisfaction from the citizenry and the English barons who resented his spendthriftness, rule of favouritism, and his preference for foreign men at the English Court. This led to the Second Barons War in May 14, 1264, led by its French leader, the Simon de Montfort, where the English king was defeated and captured. De Montfort started to rule England and started a parliamentary system of government that not only gave the barons greater power in government but also included other classes from the social hierarchy to be part of government. The English people liked de Montfort‟s revolutionary ideas and addressed him as Good Sir Simon.
By 1263, many parts of England had been captured by de Montfort‟s forces, and in 1264, another war ensued, the Battle of Lewes, where Henry III and the eldest son of Henry I, Edward, were among those captured and made prisoners of war by the forces of de Montfort. However, during Simon de Montfort‟s rule of England, the economy dwindled as her fame waned considerably. Edward, nicknamed Longshanks, because of his long arms and legs, carried out a counter offensive in the Battle of Evesham in 1265, where the rebel forces were defeated and de Montfort was killed. England then enjoyed relative peace under Henry III until his death in 1272.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. What led to the dissolution of friendship between Henry II and Thomas Becket?
ii. What do you think was responsible for the English Barons ‟ strong political stance?
3.3 A Century of Crusades
Before England formed into an entity called a country, there had been series of crusades carried out by the Anglo-Norman knights against Muslim „infidels‟ . Crusades were religious wars; Christian nations and peoples in the medieval era waged military expeditions against the Arabs who had taken over the Holy Lands, where the Christian faith started. Between 1095 and 1270, eight crusades were waged, with no outright successful results.
This period also witnessed many pilgrimages, holy journeys made to the Holy Lands, Jerusalem and other parts of the Palestine, where it was believed Jesus lived. The ruling Arab monarchy, who had invaded the Holy Lands from the 7th century, merely tolerated these pilgrimages, but this changed when Muslim Turks attacked and invaded the region.
In 1095, Pope Urban II appealed to Christians in Europe to liberate the Holy Lands from the shackles of their Muslims overlords, the Turks. More than 25, 000 people, including French and English Knights and Dukes, travelled to Constantinople to wage a war against the Turks and wrestle Jerusalem from their grip in 1099. This action is termed the First Crusade.
Crusades were also launched against the Muslims in Spain, pagan tribes of northeastern Europe, the Greeks, and the Mongols. Many kingdoms in Europe were ruled by the French, and the English monarchy itself took up the call of Pope Urban II with all seriousness – they saw the crusades as opportunities for them to contribute to the growth of God‟s kingdom here on earth. The crusades also offered a platform to show the bravery and strength of their army. However, in 1187, Jerusalem was recaptured by the Muslims under the able leadership of its charismatic leader, Saladin. Another crusade, known as the Third Crusade, was called in 1189 and this one had many English knights and kings as participants. Richard 1 of England was among those who responded to the Pope‟s appeal for another crusade to be launched against the Muslims. He could not take back Jerusalem from the Muslims, but he managed to enter a 5-year agreement with Saladin, which allowed Christian pilgrims to visit the Holy Lands without fear of being molested.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. Identify 2 characteristics each of the First and the Third Crusades. ii. Who was the military leader called Saladin?
3.4 The Late Middle Ages
When Edward I became King in 1272 at the age of thirty three, he improved the English economy, and overhauled royal finances. The first English king to adopt the Parliament to run his government, he enacted many laws that he became nicknamed, the Lawgiver. He introduced new taxes and investigated the abuses of local governance. He also re-established royal power. His main thorn in the flesh was Scotland, which waged many wars in order to become independent of England‟s rule. Edward II, the next king of England and the fourth son of Edward I, was murdered in 1327, and a new monarch, not related to the late king, became the new king of England. Edward III, using the Exchequer and the nobility, restored order to England and employed a more sophisticated approach to the treatment of governance. His government advanced the nation‟s economy better than that of his predecessors. Legislation, taxation and general government administration was made the exclusive preserve of the Parliament in the 14th century. Royal initiatives were supported by taxation. He also threw elaborate parties to unite his supporters.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. “Edward III brought stability to England”. Discuss.
3.5 The Hundred Years War
The Hundred Years War was actually more than a hundred years, as it occurred between 1337 and ended in 1453; that is about one hundred and sixteen years. The major contenders in The Hundred Years War were England and France. The war consisted of many wars and long truces. Edward III started this war in 1337. He wanted to annex France fully to England when the king of the former, Charles IV, died without having any heir to take over the throne. Edward II felt the French throne was his because he was partly French – his mother, Isabella, was French. But a French man, Philip of Valois, was made the French king, and he wanted to reclaim Gascony, an English territory situated within France. These interests from either side were one of the major reasons for the war that dragged on for over a hundred years. Edward III felt he could also use the conquest of France to also win over the English barons who had started to ferment trouble.
Another factor responsible for the conflict was the interference of France in England‟s attempt to control Scotland. England tried to control Scotland, and this made the latter to put forth a claim to the French throne and to invade France. The wool trade in England was another cause of the war. One of the major professions in medieval England was weaving, and the weavers were located in Flanders, carrying out the trade that was their major source of income. But their leaders, the rich gentry, had sympathies towards the French, and so prevented the production and sale of the English wool. Edward III exploited the situation by winning the aggrieved Flemish weavers to his side through a treaty of understanding he reached with them in 1338, to further empower him to capture the French city of Gascony.
During the war, English soldiers were made up of longbowmen and pikemen, while the French soldiers fought on horseback. The 1346 victories of the English at Crecy and Poitiers in 1356 increased English patriotism. The suspicion that the acrimony generated led to a long period of ill-feelings, though with long periods of interrupted truce up to the reign of Henry V in England, even with the victory at Agincourt in 1415. The conflicts and struggles hindered the growth of trade and economy. The success against Agincourt in 1415 which England enjoyed in the reign of Henry V was short-lived, however. The time that was spent fighting in the battlefield was too long, and this provoked a feeling of animosity in the minds of the English. French, the language of the enemy country, was in use in England then. The Hundred Years War was partly responsible for the downward trend experienced in the use of the French language in England.
Apart from the major conflicts that occurred across generations in the medieval era, warfare was endemic. The era was filled with conflicts and warfare, as noblemen formed the nucleus of the armies. The 9th century could boast of a large army, as even at a short notice, 20,000 men could be drawn up for military campaign, apart from the 28,000 men that were on reserve. The trained men were rich in weapons of war such as swords and spears that were used by wealthier nobles among Anglo-Saxons who were trained to fight from horseback. The use of shield walls in battle was a common war strategy popularised among the Vikings in the England of the 9th century.
In the 13th century, Edward I increased the axis of the army called Familia Regis and upgraded it to a standing army, part of the large regiment of 28,700, in addition to the foot soldiers who were normally drawn up for military campaigns in France and Scotland. Conversely, Edward III reduced the population of the army who were better equipped, even with long bow and canons, which was first used in 1346 by the English at the Battle of Crecy. Their fashionable uniform upgraded their social status in warfare. But by the late 15th century, English armies suffered a setback, leaving the War of the Roses in the hands of amateur soldiers.
By 1435, the invincibility of England had been stripped off through the heroic exploits of a French woman, Joan of Arc. After her capture by English forces and her death through burning at the stakes, the French king, Charles, reorganised his men and perfected the late Joan of Arc‟s strategy, surprise attacks, to confound the English forces. This way, many English fortresses were attacked and the English forces were finally chased out of France. And the Hundred Years War came to an end.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. Highlight 3 major reasons that led to the Hundred Years War. ii. Discuss the role of 3 characters in the Hundred Years War.
3.6 Black Death
Black Death was the name given to the plague that ravaged the whole of Europe. In just twenty years, it had killed over 250 million people, about 30 percent of the total populace of Europe. The victims showed symptoms of black boil-like blood shot shapes around parts of the body, especially groins, armpits and other sensitive parts of the body. The afflicted experienced severe pain and died shortly after; victims often coughed, sweated profusely with terrible odour all over. As the bubonic was accompanied by diarrhea, it infected the victims ‟ blood stream, spread quickly over the body by physical contacts, coughing, sneezing and breathing. Physicians too were not exempted from the plague.
The plague was caused by black rats that had the bubonic plague in their bloodstream. The fleas on their bodies then transmitted the disease to human beings. These black rats were usually found in merchant ships. When these ships berthed in a new country, they ran out into the streets of Europe. These European streets were very dirty with rubbish and human wastes. Open sewers were also a common feature of medieval Europe.
The geographical spread of the plague revealed that it showed its first symptom in Messina-Cecily in October 1347 and by January 1348, it had spread into France through Marseilles and engulfed North Africa through Tunisia, spread westward through Spain to central France. It arrived England shores in 1348 during the reign of Edward III. The Black Death was so called because of the black spots of blood that appeared under the skin of its victims. In a short while, the whole of England, including Wales and Scotland, was battling with the disease. Physicians washed victims with vinegar, and treated them with bloodletting purgative laxatives. They were also given rose water and bland diets. Even with that, Christians and non-Christians died in thousands and those who survived owed that to luck than any care given by a physician.
Indeed, the contagious nature of the plague exceeded anything previously known. It reached its height in 1349 extending into the beginning of 1350. Once it afflicted its victim, the illness increased in rapidity such that within two or three days, the victim either recovered, showed signs of recovery or died, but mostly, it ended in death. There was no form of remedy as it spread unhindered through communities with alarming mortality. Episcopal registers showed that 40 percent of the clergy died of the plague. As in most epidemics, the rich suffered less than the poor during the plague years and the result was a great shortage of labour, as a result of which there was a rise in wages. The disease lasted for about 150 years.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. Discuss the economic impact of the Black Death plague on medieval England.
ii. In what way(s) did medieval England contribute to the spread of the plague?
iii. Write a 5-minute drama sketch of a family that survived the disease.
3.7 The Peasants ’ Revolt
The Peasants‟ Revolt may be described as the result of the Black Death, the deadly plague that spread through the whole of Europe killing more than 30 percent of the entire populace. The plague led to a great shortage of labour that was evident in the immediate 50% rise in wages for craft workers and agricultural farmhands. Employers had no choice but to pay the exorbitant sums. England did not immediately overcome the problem, if one may judge from the thirteen re-enactments of the statutes in the next hundred years. One of these statutes was the Statute of Labourers, enacted in 1351, which prescribed the price of labour the same as it was before the Black Death plague. This was vehemently opposed by the English labourers. Many of these left England for other climes, looking for better welfare packages. There was a general spirit of discontent, and it was this state of discomfort and dissatisfaction that led to the Peasants‟ Revolt of 1381.
The immediate cause of the revolt was the introduction of a poll tax of one shilling per person. Led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, more than 20,000 peasant labourers from Kent and Essex marched to Canterbury, where they killed the Archbishop, and burnt down a palace. Do this revolt and its immediate cause – the imposition of tax – remind you of the Aba Women‟s Riot of 1929? The king of England, Richard II, who was only 14 years old, had to come out to pacify them with the words: “ You shall have from me all you seek”. But this was only a ploy, as Tyler was invited over to the king‟s palace and murdered by one of the king‟s men, William Walworth, the Lord Mayor of London.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. Enumerate 3 similarities between the Peasants‟ Revolt of medieval England and the Aba Women‟s Riot of Nigeria.
ii. In your own estimation, how did the Peasants‟ Revolt come to an end?
3.8 Wars of the Roses
The Wars of the Roses was fought between rival factions, the House of York and the House of Lancaster, within the English nobility, in 1455. It was called the Wars of the Roses because the warring houses each designed an emblem, like a coat of arms: the House of York had a white rose, while the House of Lancaster had a red rose. However, in 1485, when the war ended, and Henry Tudor, or Henry VII, a Lancastrian, became the king of England, he merged the white and red roses‟ emblems together to form the Tudor rose, which became the royal emblem.
The Wars of the Roses was sparked off mostly by the contests or common disagreements that stemmed from successions to the throne and often led to deaths that involved claimants and noble supporters. For instance, when William II inherited the English throne, he was attacked by the contestants to the throne
including his older brother, Robert and Stephen Aumale, his cousin, but William II died in the process of the contest while he went out on hunting. In the same vein, Henry I, Roberts‟s younger brother, took over power violently, leading to the eventual defeat and imprisonment of Robert at Tinchebrai. The death of Henry‟s legitimate son, William, in the White Ship disaster of November 25, 1120, fuelled succession crisis as Henry‟s nephew, Stephen of Blois, claimed the throne in 1135. Eventually, the inability of the various contestants to the throne to maintain lasting peace led to a prolonged Civil War later dubbed The Anarchy.
The War of the Roses was brutal, savage and violent in nature between the noble leadership and the rivaled parties. Enemies captured were reduced to prisoners of war and had their lands seized.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. Identify and explain the reason(s) that led to the Wars of Roses. ii. What was referred to as „The Anarchy‟?
3.9 Cultural and Intellectual Revival
Medieval England was dominated by Anglo-Saxon language; the Old English ended with the invasion of Norman in 1066. It was the Old English that developed into the Middle English variety kind of English. Traditionally, old English speakers do not distinguish between /f/ and /v/ like the speakers of modern German, old English speakers used both sounds, /f/ and /v/, for the “letter Aefre” was pronounced (ever). But, after the conquest, English people had to distinguish between, for instance, veal and feel. This means that syntax and new words contributed to the change in the language and literature of the people/period.
However, most of the early writings were done in vernacular. Marie de France, who wrote in Anglo-Norman, was an accomplished vernacular writer. She was credited with writing the stories of King Arthur and the Round Table. In France, Chertien de Troyers wrote Arthurian romances for Marie Champagne, with the cross cultural interactions, conflicts, and wars and social economic experiences. There was shared cultural and intellectual admixture in the medieval cultural and intellectual experience. Works of Pope Innocent IV, an Oxford Professor, Robert Grosseteste, King John, Aristotle, and other Greeks were translated into Latin, and gradually there was a growing sense of nationalism and cultural awareness and separation between France and England.
For instance, some of the poetry produced in old English in the early century was written in the 10th and 11th century. Beowulf, one of such poems, had 650 and 750 lines. The poem discusses the end of a protagonist in the hands of a dragon. There were also poetries written in French after the Norman Conquest in the 12th century; most of such poems were romantic in nature. Poems were written in Latin and French much as in English. Geoffrey Chaucer‟s Canterbury Tables was written in an English style. Thomas Malory‟s book, Le Morte d’Arthur, is a compilation of a number of popular English stories, particularly about the legendary King Arthur.
England was famous for music and singing in the period. The 13th century was filled with music produced from pipe organs, guitars and other instruments, and songs were sponsored by Henry IV who was known to have popularised French cultural influences like carols and ballads, especially Ballard of Chery Chase which described the activities of Robin Hood. Miracle and mystery plays were also common during this period.
Science and technology improved in the middle ages. Clocks were first built in England in the late 13th century. Mechanical clocks were installed in abbeys and cathedrals in the 1320‟s. Watermills, windmills, and water-powered filling mills, as well as the printing press were invented and used between the 13th and 15th centuries in England. Palm reading, astrology and magical philosophies were considered vital forms of knowledge in medieval England.
The period exhibited some influential English scholars and philosophers like Roger Bacon, William Ockham, Franciscan Friar, Johannes de Sacrobosco and Gilbertus Anglicus. Some of the ground breaking ventures of the period are the fusion of Latin, Greek and Islamic writings into a general theory of logic by William Ocklam. The theoretical basis for future experiments in natural science was produced by a Franciscan Friar; Johannes de Sacrobosco estimated the circumference of the Earth in the 13th century, while the longest medical work ever written in Latin, Campedium Medicinae, was published by Gilbertus Anglicus. Prominent historical and science texts began to be translated into English for the first time in the second half of the 14th century, some of which were The Travels of Sir John Mandeville and Polychranicon. Oxford University and Cambridge were established in the 11th and 12th centuries.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. In what ways was the Church instrumental to the origin of crusades in medieval England?
ii. What led to The War of Roses?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have discussed the early Middle Ages, High Middle Ages, late Middle Ages, medieval crusades, wars, investiture disagreements, Black Death, the Peasants‟ Revolt, as well as cultural and intellectual revival in Medieval Europe. In the next unit, you will be introduced to the rise of Literature in Medieval England.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that events differentiate the early Middle Ages and High Middle Ages from the late Middle Ages. We have also learnt the nature of crusades that spanned a century in England, the Hundred Years War, reasons for the Black Death, the Peasants‟ Revolt and the Wars of the Roses. We have also unveiled the cultural and intellectual angles to Medieval England.
6.0 TUTOR - MARKED ASSIGNMENT
i. Write short notes on:
(i) The Peasants‟ Revolt
(ii) Black Death
ii. Write briefly on the late Middle Ages.
iii. Highlight the major issues that led to The Hundred Years War. iv. Discuss the outcomes of The Peasants‟ Revolt
v. In spite of the chains of wars, Medieval England could boast of cultural and intellectual revival. Discuss.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Hinton, David (2002). Archeology, Economy and Society: England from the Fifth to the Fifteenth Century. Abington UK: Routledge.
Given-Wilson (ed.) (1996). An Illustrated History of Late Medieval England. Manchester UK: Manchester University Press.
Barlett, Robert (2002). England under the Norman and Angevin Kings 1075 - 1225. England: New Oxford Press.
Barlow Frank (1999). The Terdal Kingdom of England 1042 - 1216. Harlow: Pearson Educational Books.
Fleming Robin (2000). Britain after Rome: The Fall and Rise 400 to 1070 . London: Penguin Books.
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