INTRODUCTION
The term, playhouse, is used here to refer to the place where performances take place. It denotes kinds of performative spaces. These spaces include the place used by the actors during the performance and the one occupied by the audience. The place where the actors occupy during productions is known as the stage, while that used by the audience is called the auditorium. The playhouse developed from the natural playing grounds such as we find in traditional societies, to assume a complex in-door affair. Since the ancient times, the playhouse has undergone many changes and development. In this unit, we will examine these changes through historical and typological approaches.
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3.1 The Classical Greek Playhouse
The classical Greek theatre or playhouse was an open-air theatre situated on the hillside near the Acropolis that accommodated the temple of Dionysus. The playhouse was made up of localized spaces for the actors and the audience, as well as the chorus.
THE STAGE
The Greek stage was rectangular in shape. Apart from the acting area, an essential aspect of the Greek stage was the ochestra or the dancing space. According to Oscar G.Brockett, “originally, it was the only essential feature, since the audience sat or stood on the hillside to watch the choral performances which predated tragedy”(31). Allardyce Nicoll recorded that according to “excavations understaken in Athens” the original Dionysiac “orchestra had a diameter of 78 feet” (10).
The Scene-Building
The scene building which approximates the backstage in the contemporary theatre practice, was a later development in the classical Greek stage structure. It was an addendum, a child of necessity. Tracing the evolution of the scene-building, Allardyce Nicoll posits:
With the introduction of two or more actors, whom the
necessities of the performance constrained to appear in
a diversity of parts, it became imperative that a hut
should be erected at the convenience of those
concerned in the production. In Athens, the proximity of the old temple of Dionysus would have rendered the building of such a hut impossible, and it is likely that the moving of the ancient ochestra some 50 feet nothward was dictated by this consideration: the result of this change in position was that a free space was left at the rear of what had been the acting area, and here a small wooden (skene, Scene-building was set up
(11-12).
Whatever the method of setting the scene-building, “its original function was unquestionably a purely practical one, the provision of a concealed location in which the actors, out of sight of the audience, could make themselves ready, and which they might retire when their particular actions were done”(12). As time went on, the scene-building especially its part began to be used for the purpose of illustrating backgrounds of actions. Symbolic paintings were done to indicate locations of actions.
Sophocles, a fifth century Greek tragic playwright was said to have introduced scene painting in the classical Greek theatre.
At “about 425 B.C., a firm stone basis was laid for an elaborate scene- building consisting of a long front wall interrupted at the sides by projecting wings”(Nicoll, 13). Through these wings the members of the chorus made their entrances and exits to and from the orchestra. By the end of the 5th century, B.C., it became a two-storey building. The upper house was used to keep the machines that were employed to secure scenic effects, especially for the appearances and disappearances of the gods.
The scene-building had there doors on the side facing the audience. A.M. Naglar observes that “of the scene-doors the middle opened either into a palace, grotto, hall, or whatever was first distinction in the play; the right-hand door was a retreat for the next in rank; and the left, which had a very miserable aspect led to some desolate temple, or had no house”(8). People of low birth and prisoners made their entrances and exits through the left door.
The Auditorium
The Greek theatre was a festival theatre, and as such, it had a nation- wide audience. The Athenian auditorium, according to Vargas, accommodated an assembly of 20,000 people for that was the capacity of the Athenian theatre (26). It was semi-circle in shape “Originally spectators stood to watch performances, but wooden stadium like seating may have been erected during the late sixth century” (Brockett, 35).
By the fourth century B.C., due to the influence of the Hellenistic culture, the wooden seats were replaced with the more durable stone seats. Then too, the centre of attraction shifted from the ochestra to the stage.
In the words of Allardyce Nicoll:
Instead of a low stage, the actors were set up on a long elevated platform 10 to 13 feet in height, supported by rows of columns between which painted wooden panels were commonly inserted…. In this hellonistic theatre, the rear of the stage had a wide, ample façade with three huge openings (called thyromata) into which huge painted pinakes could be set, and we may believe that in accordance with the subject-matter and tone of the new comedy, these pieces of scenery tended at least towards the realistic (18).
Equipment for Scenic Effects
The classical Greek theatre people developed certain equipments that enabled them to achieve some scenic effects. These equipments include the following:
Ekkyklema: This is spelt eccyclema by some authors. According to A.M. Naglar, “the vehicle [ekkyklema] is an high seat, upon wooden steps, adjoining to which is a throne: it brings forth to view secret transactions in the subscenery apartments”(9). During the classical Greek period, perhaps because of the sacred nature of the festival of Dionysus, violent actions including death were not permitted to occur on the stage. They were performed behind the stage, and the victim(s) were wheeled onto the stage by means of ekkyklema.
Peraktoi: These refer to wooden triangular prisms, on each side of which was painted a certain background environment or scene. They were placed on central pivots and caused to rotate to reveal required scenes. Apart from cities or country sides, Naglar expressed the opinion that the peraktoi were directly used in revealing “seagods and whatever was too unwieldy for the vehicle (ekkyklema) to bear”(8).
Machane: This is a cranelike device used in suspending the gods in the air. The machane was held in position with ropes fastened, at the upper part of the scene-building. Euripides made extensive use of the machane in his plays. It was from the use of machane that the term deus ex machina was coined. At first, the term was used to describe the appearance of the gods who came to resolve problematic plays, but now it is seen as “a dramatic device introduced for the purpose of bringing a problem or an action to a swift, and often to an unsatisfactorily artificial conclusion” (Nicoll, 22).
Anapiesmata : This is a kind of trap door. During the classical Greek period, furies or ghosts made appearances from the trap door. It can be compared to a tomb.
SELF ASSESSMENT Exercise 1
What factor led to the introduction of scene-building?
3.2 The Roman Playhouse
The Romans worshiped a multitude of gods and goddess, and offered plays to them during their specific festivals. Scholars argued that it was not possible to build permanent theatre structures for these many gods and goddesses. However, by 55 B.C., the great Roman leader, Pompey constructed the first permanent playhouse in Rome. This theatre was modeled after the Greek playhouse, but was built on a level ground. The stage was low and deep while the ochestra was reduced to semi- circle in shape, and importance. In some playhouses that followed the Pompey’s theatre, seats for distinguished members of the audience were actually placed in the ochestra. According to Nicoll, whereas the Greek theatres had always been composed of either two or three parts, here the entire tread was towards the creation of a single architectural whole. This implies that the stage, the ochestra and the auditorum were joined together. And as time went by, a roof was erected over the entire playhouse to protect both the actors and the audience from the hazards of the wheather, and the now massive walled theatre. Pompey’s theatre was said to have a diameter of 500 feet. Brockett compared the length of the stage to the modern football pitch.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Distinguish between the Greek and the Roman playhouse
3.3 The Medieval Playhouse
There was basically no single type of playhouse during the Middle Ages. Rather what existed was multiple staging arrangements. At the beginning of the liturgical drama, the church served as the playhouse. The altar served as the major acting area, but “the whole nave of the church could be used by the ecclesiastical actors, and within this space different particular fictional localities could be indicated” (Nicoll, 51). This type of stage arrangement is known as simultaneous staging.
When the drama was pushed out of the church, simultaneous staging was retained, but mansions were erected to represent fictional palaces. The spaces between mansions were for wayside events. When the mystery plays became so elaborate, the stationary simultaneous staging arrangement was replaced by the movable type. In this new style, mansions were placed on wheels and dragged from place to place. This new staging technique was referred to as pageant. Like mansions used in the stationary settings, these movable pageants were sometimes made in symbolic representation of the locality, or scene they were intended to indicate” (59).
Equipment for Scenic Effects
The Medieval theatre made giant effort in achieving realistic effects. These equipment were many in number, but we will examine a few here
The Hell Mouth
The hellmouth was an imposing and terrifying machinery used to create the effect of hell in a realistic fashion. This equipment belched out fire and smoke as it opened to swallow damned souls.
Device for Paradise
Mechanical device to create the illusion of paradise is said to be sublime and very difficult to achieve for it “presents a more complicated arrangement” (53).
Other devices include the one that made the status of Virgin Mary to move her head and neck and to lift her eye to heaven, the one that permitted angels to fly from heaven to earth; we have also effect for burning altar. etc. Brockett maintains that “machines for special effects grew in number and complexity during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries as the machinists abilities to contrive seemingly miraculous events increased”(104).
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
What is simultaneous staging?
3.4 The Renaissance Playhouse
The discovery of the architectural writing of the classical Roman author, Vitrivius helped greatly in revolutionarizing the theatre architecture during the Renaissance Italy. Vitrivius’s work supplied information on the ancient Roman theatre, which designers during the Renaissance sought to recreate. But as time went on, the highly inquisitive painters, designers and artists became dissatisfied with the reconstruction of the ancient Roman playhouse, but “were animated by the desire to achieve things fresh and new” (Nicoll, 69). This desire led to the introduction of perspective painting.
Perspective painting refers to the art of painting scenic environment in a way that gives an impression of the object’s right height, size, width and depth as it appears from a distance. On the perspective stage, scenic environment is recreated in excellent painting. In perspective scenery, the scattered mansions of the medieval playhouse were united as a single unit resembling a street, palaces, churches, cities, etc. In order to ensure proper sight-line, that is to ensure the every member of the audience sees the stage well, the semi-circular auditorium was made to give way to a new one that is oval in shape. Sabastiano Serlio sought, through the wonders of the perspective, to represent tragic, comic and satirical scenes truly. Teatro Olympico at Vicenza, constructed in 1585 by Andrea Palladio (1518-1586)and Vicenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616) still stands as a typical example of this type of theatre, even though it was made of wood.
The Era of Changeable Scenery
In the words of Allardyce Nicoll, “the Renaissance theatre was not content to stay still”, to make do with “stabilized setting”, for as time went on, the “spectators instinctively craved for movement and variety”(82). This quest for movement and variety led to the evolution of movable scenery. The task of doing this and placing “a final seal on the development of the Renaissance playhouse, was credited to Bernardo Buontalenti (1536-1608). In 1855, he introduced movable scenery in the playhouse he was commissioned to build at Uffizi in Florence. Nicoll writes that, “instead of a single unaltered setting, however beautiful, being placed immovable behind the actors, the spectators saw a continual series of ever-changing and ever-dazzling scenic displays set before their wondering eyes”(84).
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4
Trace the development of the playhouse during the Renaissance.
3.5 The Modern Playhouse
From the later years of the eighteenth century, the passion for what was real began to seize the attention of theatre workers. By the second-half of the nineteenth century, Realism had taken over the theatre. Efforts were made to achieve complete illusion of life on stage, “to create a setting which did not merely look like the kind of place in which the action of a realistic play might be expected to occur, but which was the only setting in which the action of the particular play could occur”(Hewitt, 64). In other words, the stage was made to appear as real as possible. Real properties were brought on stage; costumes resembled the historical period of plays, while gas lighting and subsequently lighting by means of electricity helped to provide authentic illumination and moods. The audience now sat in darkened auditorium to watch the dramatic actions as they unfold on the brilliantly lit stage.
THEATRICALISM
Theatricalism is used to describe staging arrangement that tends towards the symbolic. Proponents of theatricalism argued that authentic Realism cannot be realized on stage, and as such, they revolted against it. They sought to make the stage completely artistic by relying heavily on the symbolic and the unnatural. Gordon Craig would want to turn the theatre into a temple. He rejected details and painted scenery. To break the idea of a “peep-show” theatre which Realism represents, some designers go for a total theatre where the audience will encircle the performers. Craig used mass light and towering scenery to break the notion of illusionism. The essence of the various shades of theatricalism is to constantly remind the audience that it is watching an art, a theatrical performance, and not a slice of life put on stage.
However, in spite of the division between Realism and Theatricalism, the tendency today is towards the eclectic. We have a situation where the Realist ideals are mingled with the theatricalist conventions.
SELF ASSESSMENT Exercise 5
Discuss the concept of theatricalism.
3.6 Kinds of Theatre Structure
Albright et al posit that “theatre structures differ widely in their basic architectural organization, a circumstance which in turn dictates the relationship between actors, stage, setting and audience”(147). In the discussion that follows, attempt will be made to examine some theatre
structures.
The Arena
This is the oldest form of theatre arrangement. It is used to describe the performance space used by the ancient, and even in the modern times, traditional societies. Village and market squares are typical examples of the arena theatre. Arena stage often lacks scenery. Albright et al observe that:
Nearly every time that the theatre died down and then was reborn, it reverted to the pure arena form at the beginning, even though it often developed very quickly a specialized pattern of organization. So it was with the interlude players who were the ancestors of the Elizabethan companies, with the drama which arose in the church at the end of the Middle Ages and with the comedian dell’ arte (148).
The arena encourages direct communication between the spectators and the actors, and “even a physical mingling of the two groups, as when the demons in primitive dances attempt to frighten the audience”(149). There is hardly any distinction between the stage and the auditorium.
Simultaneous Staging
Describing this type of staging technique, Albright et al state that “simultaneous staging is an organization of the scene in which several unrelated locales are represented at the same time around a common playing area used for all locales, and in which each incident is located by the way in which the actors relate themselves to one or more scenic units”(153). In other words, it is the type of stage in which the scenes in a play are laid out in the acting space at the same time. The Medieval theatre artists made extensive use of simultaneous staging arrangement.
The Proscenium Theatre
This form developed during the Renaissance, and in fact, has dominated theatrical practice in the modern times. In this type of theatre, the stage is framed. The proscenium arch is the key “architectural feature through which the audience views the performance at some distance, psychological, as well as physically” (Albright et al, 147). The audience watches the performance from the broken down forth wall. Watching a production mounted on a proscenium stage is like watching a television programme. Actions come mainly from one direction. According to Ahmed Yerima, the acting area is like a square with one side of the square open for the audience to see through the stage (18). Proscenium staging requires series of scene changes which are often done in blackout.
The proscenium staging arrangement has a lot of constraints. Albright et al list some of the limitations of the proscenium stage to include the following:
1. The actors, separated from his auditors by the gulf of the ochestra pit the psychological barrier of the curtain line, and the darkness of the auditorium, felt handicapped in his efforts to gain their attention and sympathy.
2. Spectators in seats far from the stage complained of the oppressive tunnel-like feeling forced on them by the narrow auditorum, the impossibility of seeing the facial expression from the gallery or the rear of the auditorium and the difficulty of hearing caused by the built-in-echoes and reverberations which plagued most proscenium theatre seating more than a few hundred persons (208). The reasons above among many others, gave rise to the agitation of a more comfortable theatre.
The Open Theatre
The arena stage is a kind of open theatre. But, we have another kind of open theatre staging arrangement where the audience surrounds the actors on three sides, that is, their front as well as their two sides. The seating arrangement “barely exceeds a semi circle”(209). This kind of open air theatre is called the thrust stage.
This is a variation of the open stage. Although the gap between the actors and spectators appears to be bridged in some cases, the stage is raised up to prevent the audience from crowding on the performance space.
The Pit Theatre
There are two very good examples of a pit theatre in Nigeria. One is at the African Studies Department building of the Obafemi Awolowo University in Ife. The Ife pit is square in shape, while the one at Ahmadu Bello University theatre studio is round (19).
Bernard Beckerman states that, “the spatial pattern is determined by the degree and manner of contact between the presentation and the audience” (240). Expressing the nature of playhouse in mathematic terms, he observes that the proscenium type of theatre deals with “face- to-face relationship where a performer may face the audience without pivoting more than 1800. He explains that in the thrust stage and certain kinds of amphitheatre, “the performer must pivot as much as 2700 , whereas in “the arena, the performer pivots a full 3600 in order to address the complete audience” (240).
It is important to note that the nature of drama influences its setting. Realist, as well as Naturalist drama is intensive because it occurs mostly in sitting-rooms and extends to other parts of the middle class homes. This explains why “it relied on a setting congruent to actuality”, and it is possible to make the “dimensions of stage space’ and “of fictive space nearly equal” (244).
On the other hand, “extensive drama does not make such assumption, for the magnitude of action is greater than can be physically accommodated on stage” (244). Shakespearean plays are examples of extensive drama. This is because they embody wide range of actions, and places that can never be realized on stage realistically. This is why even during this contemporary time of marvelous technology, signs and symbols are still used in the production of Shakespearean plays to achieve dramatic truth.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6
List and discuss two types of theatre structure.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We explained that playhouse refers to the place of performance and that it is made up of two localized area, the stage and the auditorium. We noted that the stage denotes the actual place of performance, while the auditorium means the place where the audience sits or stands to watch the performance. We looked at the changes that occurred in the development of the playhouse historically and typologically.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we examined the meaning of and nature of the playhouse by specifically examining the nature of the classical, Medieval, Renaissance and the modern playhouses. We identified types of theatre structure to include the arena, thrust, proscenium, pit, as well as the simultaneous staging.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What is a playhouse?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Naglar, A.M. (1952). A Source Book in Theatrical History. New York: Dover.
Albright, H.D, P. Halstead and Lee Mitchell (1968). Principles of Theatre Art. Second Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Yerima, Ahmed (2003). Basic Techniques in Playwriting. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited.
Beckerman, Bernard (1970). Dynamics of Drama: Theory and Method of Analysis. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Vargas, Luis (1960). Teach Yourself Guidebook To Drama. London: The English Universities Press.
Hewitt, Barnard (1970). History of the Theatre: From 1800 to the Present. New York: Random House.
Nicoll, Allardyce (1970). The Development of the Theatre. London: George G. Harrap
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