INTRODUCTION
In sentence construction, it is important to indicate that one sentence has ended and another is about to start or that it is time to break either for a short time or because a certain quotation, list or another part of the sentence is about to follow. At other times punctuations signal abbreviations, proper nouns or omissions of certain letters. Some sentences require one type of punctuation only while others require more than one.
3.1 End Punctuations
These are punctuation marks which come at the end of sentences. They include the full stop or period, the question mark and the exclamation mark. The use of one of these excludes the use of the others.
3.1.1 The Full Stop or Period (.)
The full stop is used to mark the end of a declarative sentence or an imperative sentence that issues its commands mildly as in the following:
1. In 1960, Nigeria became independent.
2. Give us this day our daily bread.
To give a declarative or imperative sentence the force of an exclamatory sentence an exclamation mark can be used. Examine the following sentences:
3. I was so shocked that I stood motionless!
4. Bring the ladder quickly!
After a request, it is preferable to use a full-stop rather than a question mark:
5. May I have your pen, please. (request)
6. Will you send me any additional information you may have. (request)
The full stop is also used after abbreviations and initials:
7. Dr., Mr., Mrs., A.M., P.M, Ph.D, U.S.A.
When however the abbreviation includes the last letter of the word the full stop is usually omitted.
Note however that when a sentence ends with an abbreviation, one full- stop is sufficient for both the sentence and the abbreviation:
8. Cash the cheque at All States Trust Bank Plc.
The full-stop is also used to signal the omission of words in a quoted passage. When used in this way the three dots used together are referred to as ellipsis as in the following
9. ‘Intonation is used to describe … the way the voice rises and falls in speech” (Udofot and Eshiett, 1996,p. 44).
If the omission (ellipsis) occurs at the end of a quoted passage, it is more conventional to use four dots.
10. To translate is to change into another language … .
3.1.2 The Question Mark (?)
The question mark is used at the end of an interrogative sentence which asks direct questions as in the following:
11. Why did you beat that child?
12. How are you?
13. Do you like rice?
If a sentence contains more than one question, the question mark maybe used after each separate part of a sentence. Also, more than one question mark may be used in a single sentence to show the close-linked nature of the5 questions or to emphasise each of the separate questions.
14. Will Amate marry George? Or will Uduak?
15. Are we sure of his honesty? His commitment? His willingness?
Note however that if the question is not complete until the end of the sentence the question mark should be placed at the end only.
16. Will the examination take place today, tomorrow or the next?
When only part of the sentence is a question, the question is usually introduced by a comma or colon; a semicolon or dash may also be used.
17. May I ask, what is your problem?
17a. This is my problem: what can I do to prevent the rain from
falling?
17b. We would like to know, what date will you arrive? Will you like
a room to be reserved for you? And, how long do you intend to stay?
A question mark can also be used to show uncertainty or to suggest humorous intentions. Examine the following.
18. Professor Ekpedeme was born in 1950 (?)
19. His requests (?) are too many.
Note that the question mark should not be used
(a) at the end of an indirect question.
Examine the following example:
20. I demand to know why children should be made to be bread winners through hawking.
(b) to mark the end of a polite or formal question.
21. Could you send your reply at your earliest convenience.
3.1.3 The Exclamation Mark (!)
The exclamation mark is used at the end of an exclamatory sentence, phrase or clause. Examine the following:
22. How have the mighty fallen!
23. God forbid!
24. What a surprise!
Note that like the question mark, the exclamation mark can be used within the sentence to show strong feeling; that is after an interjection as in the following examples:
25. Good God! She is dead!
26. Father! Father!
27. Oh! I haven’theard that before!
The exclamation mark should not be used after mild exclamations as in
28. Well, I have survived it.
The exclamation mark is also used after statements which are commands or those that imply immediate action.
29. Return the form today! Do not delay!
30. Hurry! Pay your subscription today!
The exclamatory mark can also be used after an interrogative sentence that is intended to be exclamatory.
31. Oh! Why should she say that!
32. But can a human being be trusted!
Sometimes, an exclamation mark is used for emphasis as in the following:
33. Remember the deadline of May 2nd!
34. Your admission lapses irrevocably after February 28th, 2008!
Some writers use the exclamation mark to indicate an afterthought or ironical statements e.g.
34a. I like toads!
34b. Let’s goto hell!
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Insert the proper end punctuation at the end of each of the following:
1. Never I would rather resign
2. Resign you will
3. Unwana asked why her brothers had gone out.
4. Well done
5. May I suggest that you give us the money
6. Oh Nigeria my dear native land
7. He screamed angrily that he did not welcome opposition
8. Where are the children
9. Prof I Udofot
10. NEPA
3.2 Internal Punctuation
Internal punctuation refers to punctuation marks used within the sentence to point out that the flow of thought in the sentence is interrupted. They warn the reader to slow down because something is about to be added to or subtracted from the sentence.
3.2.1 The Comma (,)
The comma separates sentence elements. It is the most frequently used, the least emphatic and the most abused of the internal punctuation marks. The comma is used to separate words, phrases or clauses in a series when there are more than three items:
35. He went to the market to buy clothes, food, books and some fruits.
36. On weekends, I do my shopping, wash my clothes, iron them and then cook a big pot of soup.
It is conventional to omit the comma before and, or connecting the last two items of the series. The comma also separates two independent clauses joined by a co-ordinating conjunction such as and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet, either … or, neither … nor.
37. I had thought that snails were tasty, but I found that they were not.
If the independent clauses are short and closely related, the comma should be omitted.
38. John likes Mary and Mary likes him.
The comma is also used after an adverbial subordinate when the subordinate clause begins the sentence.
39. When I finish my education, I will work in Abuja.
Note that when the dependent clause does not begin the sentence, the comma is unnecessary.
40. I will work in Abuja when I finish my education.
When a phrase also begins the sentence, a comma is used to separate it from the rest of the sentence.
41. The strike having been called off, we went back to work.
If however the subject of the sentence is an infinitive, the subject is not separated from the rest of the sentence.
42. To pass the examination was her target
When two adjectives modify a noun, a comma is used to separate them;
43. She is a clever, well-behaved girl.
Note that if the comma cannot be replaced by ‘and’ in the sentence it is not in order. Examine the following:
44. She is a clever and well behaved girl. But not:
45. He is abrave military man.
In the above sentence, a comma cannot be used between brave and military because that comma cannot be replaced by ‘and’ as in
46. He is abrave and military man (unacceptable)
In writing the date, the comma separates the year from other items as in 31st December, 1950.
A comma is also used to separate the parts of geographical names, addresses, districts etc.
47. 27 Idak Okpo Street, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.
A comma is often used after the salutation and complimentary close of a letter.
48. Dear Madam, Yours sincerely, Dear Sir, Yours faithfully.
The comma is also used to separate elements which break the continuity of a sentence from the rest of the sentence. These include transitional words, interjections, sentence modifiers, words, phrases and clauses in apposition.
49. Usually, she comes to work early.
50. Somebody, I guess, has to do it.
51. Mr. Okon, the English teacher, is very dutiful.
52. His position, nevertheless, looks shaky.
A comma should not be used to separate the subject or complement from the verb unless there are other elements which break the continuity of the sentence.
53. Life, is the art of learning from one’s mistakes (wrong)
53a. Life is the art of learning from one’smistakes.
The comma should also not be used between two independent clauses unless a co-ordinating conjunction is also used. The use of the comma between two independent clauses without a co-ordinating conjunction is
called the ‘comma fault’ (Bolander and Semmelmeyer, 1984,p. 279)
The following examples illustrate the comma fault.
54. The student does not take corrections, he continues to make mistakes (comma fault).
55. The student does not take corrections so he continues to make mistakes (correct)
A comma should also not be used when a full stop or any other punctuation mark should be used. Many students make the mistake of overworking the comma and they commit an error known as the ‘comma splice’ . The following passage shows a wrong use of the comma where other punctuation marks should be used.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Replace the comma with the proper punctuation marks.
In our house scolding was the order of the day, my father scolded everyone, and my mother scolded the children all except the eldest, and there was a good reason for the exception, the boy was hardly ever at home, when he did turn up, there was no question of being cross with him, one harsh word and he will vanish again.
(Adapted from Mongo Beti’s Mission to Kala,p. 165)
3.2.2 The Semicolon (;)
The semicolon is used to indicate a stronger break than the comma. It shows a stronger separation between the parts of a sentence but not as strong as the full-stop. It is not advisable to use many semicolons in sentence construction because it is generally too formal and suggests that one is writing sentences that are too long. Frequent use of the semicolon results in very involved sentences that may break down if not well controlled.
The semicolon is often used to separate two independent clauses which are closely connected in meaning or two independent clauses which are joined by transitional words or phrases, NOT a coordinating conjunction. Observe the following examples:
56. The Vice Chancellor did not accept the committee’s report as presented; he suggested some amendment (sentence closely connected in meaning).
57. Mr. Essien’s car broke down; consequently, he was late for work.
Note that the use of the semicolon in this way remedies the comma fault mentioned above. Note also the use of the comma after the transitional word in Sentence No. 58. The following are some of the common transitional words and phrases:
however
furthermore
thus
meanwhile
on the other hand
that is
Nevertheless
moreover
at least
Consequently
namely
in addition
Again
finally
Hence
as a result
Therefore
in fact
possibly
in short
In clauses or phrases already containing commas, the semicolon is used as a stronger break between such clauses.
58. At the End-of-term Assembly, Eme Okon, the school sports captain, was elected the school prefect; Ofonmbuk Enoidem, my niece, was elected labour prefect and Glory Akpan, an S.S.2 student, was elected timekeeper.
The semicolon is also often used after words introducing explanations, enumerations or a list in a sentence (that is words like for example, that is,for instance, and namely).
This usage is shown in the following examples:
59. He is a surgeon; that is a doctor who performs operations.
60. The school vest is available in four colours; namely, blue, red, green and white.
Note that the semicolon should not be used in the following cases:
(a) after the salutation or complimentary close of a letter (particularly an informal letter)
Dear Rose, NOT Dear Rose; Yours sincerely, NOT Yours sincerely;
(b) after subordinate clauses where a comma should be used:
Having seen that the man was dying, the thieves stopped beating him NOT Having seen that the man was dying; the thieves stopped beating him.
3.2.3 The Colon (:)
The colon signals the strongest possible break within the sentence. It indicates that a statement, an explanation or a list is about to follow. It is used in the following situation:
(a) To introduce a list as in the following example:
61. There are three kinds of skirts: the mini, the midi and the maxi.
62. His duties are as follows: receiving mails, filing papers and duplicating examinations.
Note that when the list is in a column form, the first letter of each item should be capitalised as in the following.
63. Learn how to use the following machines:
i. Typewriter
ii. Duplicating machine
iii. Calculator
When, however, the items in a list are included in a sentence the first letter of each item is not capitalised as in the example below:
64. Learn how to use the following machines: typewriter, duplicating machine and calculator.
(b) If a sentence explains, restates, amplifies or contrasts the sentence
that precedes it, a colon is used after the first sentence, as in the following example:
65. Uko is very happy: he has just gained admission into a university.
(c) A colon is often used to stress a word, a phrase or clause that follows:
66. Educated though he is, he is unduly influenced by a single factor: superstition.
(d) A colon is also used to introduce a long or formal quotation as in the following.
67. The school principal said: “ ................................................. ”
(e) The colon also divides parts of references, titles, formulae and
numerals as in the following:
68. I was assigned to read chapter 12: Section 19.
69. The time is 10:45 am.
3.3 Other Punctuations
3.3.1 Capital Letters
Capital letters are used at the beginning of a sentence unless the sentence follows a semicolon or a colon.
70. This is the car that my father gave me. But
71. I love this car; it was my father’s last gift tome.
Capital letters are also used for proper names as in the following.
72. Inyang, Bassey, University of Uyo, Lake Chad, Nigeria, Africa. Capital letters are used at the beginning of titles as in
73. The Okuku of Afaha UdoEyop The Obong of Calabar
The Emir ofFika
The Oba of Benin
Capital letters are also used for the pronoun I and the interjection O as in:
74a. I work with her always.
74b. Save us O Lord!
Some writers choose to capitalize pronouns of deities especially God e.g.
74c. God knows our hearts and He provides our needs.
Capital letters are also used in writing titles e.g. Ph.D., B.A., M.A., OFR. Some important words in headings start with capitals e.g. Application for Employment as a Clerk.
In writing a long title, capital letters begin each word other than the structural words as in
75. The Beautiful Ones are not yet Born is written by Ayi Kwei Armah.
3.3.2 Parentheses ( )
Parentheses are used in pairs to set off words, phrases, clauses which are explanatory or which are translations or comments. Usually, materials in parentheses are independent constructions; the sentence can do without them but they give added explanation when included in the sentence. Observe the use of parentheses in the following:
76. A sentence consists of a subject (a nominal group), a predicate (a verbal group) and in most cases one or more complements (which maybe nominal, adjectival or adverbial).
77. Ekpedeme (my daughter’s roommate) is coming to spend the night in our house.
Note that when you open a bracket (used for parenthesis) you have to close it. When a symbol, letter or number is used in apposition it is placed within parentheses as in:
78. He paid twenty thousand naira (N20,000.00) for the hall.
79. The businessman decorated his letterhead with the naira (N) symbol.
When parentheses are used with other punctuation marks, the main part of the sentence should be punctuated as if the portion in parentheses is not there. If a punctuation mark applies to the whole sentence and not just to the portion in parentheses it should come after the second parenthesis. Examine the following:
80. He presented guidelines for evaluation of the seminar (undergraduate and postgraduate), but the guidelines were ignored by the examiners.
If the punctuation mark applies only to the material in parentheses it is placed inside the second parenthesis as in
81. A knowledge of sentence construction will help you in writing good sentences. (See module 1 of this course book.)
3.3.3 The Apostrophe (’)
The apostrophe is used with nouns to show possession, as in:
82. This is Mary’s dress. (singular)
83. These are the boys’ books (plural)
Note that the apostrophe comes before‘s’ in singular nouns and after‘s’ in plural nouns as in examples 82 and 83 above.
Note that the apostrophe is not used in possessive pronouns as in:
84. Ours, yours, hers, its, theirs NOT
Our’s, your’s, her’s, it’s, their’s
The apostrophe is also used to show contracted forms indicating the omission of one or more letters as in the following contracted forms:
85. I’m I’ve I’ll
You’re You’ve You’d He’s He’d He’ll
Note that contracted forms are not acceptable in formal writing except in informal letters and in quoting direct speech.
3.3.4. Quotation Marks “ ”
Quotation marks are used singly or doubly to enclose direct quotations. It is important to be consistent when using quotation marks; if you start with a single quotation mark finish with that, and if you begin with double quotation marks, also end with those. As a matter of convention, quotation marks are used for
(a) direct speech as in
86. The teacher said: “Sit down, pupils.”
87. “Where”, she asked, “are you taking me?”
Note that the first word of a direct quotation begins with a capital letter as in No. 86 above. The first word in the second part of an interrupted quotation is however not captalised as in No. 87.
(b) Titles of magazines, articles, chapters of books, names of songs,
titles of poems and other titles are enclosed within quotation marks:
88. The poem “Piano and Drums” was written by Gabriel Okara.
89. The musician sang “Gone with the wind” at the funeral.
Note that titles of books are underlined not enclosed within quotation marks and when printed or typeset on computer a title is italicised rather than underlined.
(c) Quotation marks are also used to enclose words used as examples in a sentence as in.
90. “Patricia” is aproper noun but “sister” is not.
(d) Quotation marks enclose words, phrases or sentences referred to in a sentence, as in the following:
91. The word “junction” is often mispronounced by Ibibio learners of English.
92. The saying “a stitch in time saves nine” is a good warning to act fast.
A quotation which occurs within a quotation is enclosed within single quotation marks. Note that this is for consistency. If however single quotation marks were used by the writer the double quotation marks are advisable for quotation within quotations. Examine the following.
93. “Is ‘Patricia’ a proper noun?” asked the teacher.
94. The angry mother said, “You must get all these ‘hand-me-downs’ out of the bedroom immediately” .
Points to Note
(a) If several paragraphs are quoted, quotation marks should be placed at the beginning of the first paragraph and at the end of the last paragraph only.
(b) Quotations of more than three lines are usually indented and quotation marks are not used with indentation.
(c) The full stop and the comma are always placed before ending quotation marks but if a complete sentence is quoted, the closing quotation marks areplaced after the final stop as in the following:
95. She shouted, “they do not live here.”
96. Prof. Eka said, “You will go on leave next month” .
(d) The question mark and the exclamation mark are placed after the ending quotation marks when they refer to the whole sentence as in
97. Did he say “You will go on leave next month”?
When the question mark or the exclamation mark refers only to the quoted material, it is placed before the ending quotation marks.
98. She asked, “When will I go on leave?”
99. I heard her scream, “Alas, she is dead!”
(e) The semicolon and colon follow the ending quotation marks if
they are not part of the quoted material as in the following:
100. He said, “You will go on leave next week”: consequently, I started saving for a holiday.
3.3.5 Brackets [ ]
Brackets are normally used in pairs to enclose material added by someone other than the writer of the passage. These include editorial additions and comments.
101. The activities of the cultural week [singing, dancing, drama and lectures] went on the whole week.
102. The playwright [Dr. Chris Egharevba] was present at the first public presentation of his play.
Brackets are also used within parentheses to enclose parenthetical matter within parentheses.
103. The drugs you ordered (including maloxine, ampicillin, omega
H3 [Norvasc ]) were delivered at your office.
Note that many writers use brackets when they mean to be using parentheses or use them interchangeably. They are, however, not the same. Brackets are seldom used in business or social writing. They are generally found in printed material of a technical or scholarly nature. For your everyday writing you need to use the parenthesis more often.
3.3.6 The Dash ( )
The dash is used to signal an abrupt change of ideas. It should be used sparingly in business and social writing such as letters, reports, minutes as it sometimes suggests that the writer is vacillating and is not sure of what to say or what punctuation mark to use.
The dash signals a sudden change of thought or an after thought added to the end of a sentence. Examine the following:
104. I was sure that the dean - indeed all the members of the faculty
Appointments and Promotions Committee wanted him to be appointed.
105. I shall do the shopping, take care of decoration - give you every help I can.
Sometimes the dash is used to signal a word or phrase which is repeated for emphasis as in the following:
106. She was invited for the Opening Ceremony - the Opening Ceremony only - not for the cocktail as well.
Note that commas, dashes and parentheses - anyone of them - may be used to signal additional material. There are no hard and fast rules that restrict the use of the one or the other. In general, when punctuating materials that are additional in a sentence it is conventional to use dashes for visual effect, the commas if the material is short and parentheses if the material is long.
3.3.7 The Hyphen (-)
This applies mostly in spelling of some compound words (hair-dresser, peace-loving, know-it-all) and setting off some prefixes (ex-officio, anti- crime, non-Biblical).
Hyphens are also used in syllabicating polysyllabic words (or-ga-ni-sa- tion, re-gain, le-tter, gra-na-ry). This should be particularly observed in breaking up words at the end of lines. Monosyllabic words must not be syllabicated.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
Punctuate the following and make appropriate changes in form.
1. Slow men at work
2. mobil producing nigeria limited
3. mr udo said i am travelling by akwa ibom transport to Lagos
4. 27 idak okpo street uyo akwa ibom state dear ekaette i am happy to tell you that i have improved my english tremendously these last months you see our group lecturer made it compulsory for us to read one novel a month and in the last one month i have read six novels i cannot tell you how much i have learnt from this exercise atrial will convince you yours sincerely esther.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Incorrect punctuation of English sentences often results in conveying wrong meaning or no meaning at all. To achieve structurally correct English sentences, you must learn to use punctuation marks appropriately.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit the following points have been made:
•Punctuations indicate that one sentence has ended and another is about to start or that it is time to break either for a short time or because a certain quotation, list or another part of the sentence is about to follow.
•Punctuations also signal abbreviations, proper nouns or omissions of certain letters.
•End punctuation marks come at the end of sentences.
•They include the full stop or period, the question mark and the exclamation mark.
•The use of one of these excludes the use of the others.
•Internal punctuation refers to punctuation marks used within the sentence to point out that the flow of thought in the sentence is interrupted.
•Internal punctuations include: the comma,the semi-colon, the colon.
•Other punctuations include quotation marks, the apostrophe, the brackets, the dash, parentheses and the hyphen: these can occur within or at the end of sentences.
ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Insert the proper end punctuation at the end of each of the following:
1. Never! I would rather resign!
2. Resign you will.
3. Unwana asked why her brothers had gone out.
4. Well done!
5. May I suggest that you give us the money.
6. Oh Nigeria my dear native land!
7. He screamed angrily that he did not welcome opposition.
8. Where are the children?
9. Prof. I. Udofot
10. N.E.P.A
ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Replace the comma with the proper punctuation marks.
In our house, scolding was the order of the day. My father scolded everyone and my mother scolded the children; all except the eldest, and there was a good reason for the exception. The boy was hardly ever at home. When he did turn up, there was no question of being cross with him.One harsh word and he will vanish again.
(Adapted from Mongo Beti’s Mission to Kala,p. 165)
ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
Punctuate the following
1. Slow, men at work.
2. Mobil Producing Nigeria Limited
3. Mr. Udo said: “I am Travelling by Akwa Ibom Transport to Lagos” .
4. 27 Idak Okpo Street, Uyo,
Akwa Ibom State.
Dear Ekaette,
I am happy to tell you that I have improved my English tremendously these last months. You see, our group lecturer made it compulsory for us to read one novel a month; and in the last one month, I have read six novels. I cannot tell you how much I have learnt from this exercise. A trial will convince you.
Yours sincerely,
Esther.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Punctuate the following passage
etim sipped his cup of tea it was the type he liked strong without milk or sugar with an effort of will jumped up and walked to the door and standing on the veranda he took seven deep breaths this done daily he believed would clear stale air from his lungs and enable him to take in fresh air which would keep him healthy and prevent any lung infection was this true he believed firmly he walked round his backyard and came into his neat modern bathroom and took a cool shower which he believed was also necessary for good health.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Eka, D. (1996). Elements of Grammar and Mechanics of the English English. Uyo: Samuf Educational.
Semmelmeyer, M. and Bolander, D. (1984). Instant English Handbook. Illinois: Career Publishing Inc.
Udofot, I. and Ekpenyong, B. (2004). A Comprehensive English Course for Schools and Colleges. Lagos: Quantum Co. Ltd.
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