INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall examine Nigerian literatures that treated the issue of wars. African countries have had history of wars. We have had Nigerian-Biafran War of 1968-1970. There are many war literatures in Nigeria about Nigerian-Biafran war. They include: Eddie Iroh’s Forty Eight Guns for the General and Toads of War, Ekwensi’s Survive the Peace, Okpewho’s The Last Duty, Achebe’s Girls at War amongst other numerous titles. We shall examine some novels, poetry and drama treating the theme of war in Nigeria.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, the students should be able to:
. understand that Nigerian war literature exists
. appreciate Nigerian writers writing about wars
. assess any Nigerian literature with war themes
. recognize Nigerian literatures with war themes
. identify Nigerian writers that write about wars.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 General Overview
A war literature is a literature in which the primary action takes place in a field of armed combat, or in a domestic setting (or home front) where the characters are preoccupied with the preparations for, or recovery from, war. The war literature's main roots lie in the epic poetry of the classical and medieval periods, especially Homer's The Iliad, Virgil's The Aeneid, the Old English saga Beowulf, and different versions of the legends of King Arthur. All of these epics were concerned with preserving the history or mythology of conflicts between different societies, while providing an accessible narrative that could reinforce the collective memory of a people. Other important influences on the war literature include the tragedies of such dramatists as Euripides, Seneca the Younger, Christopher Marlowe, and Shakespeare. Shakespeare's Henry V provided a model for how the history, tactics, and ethics of war could be combined in an essentially fictional framework. Romances and satires in Early Modern Europe--Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene and Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote, to name two of many--also contained elements of military heroism and folly that influenced the later development of war literatures. In terms of imagery and symbolism, many modern war literatures (especially those espousing an anti-war viewpoint) take their cue from Dante's depiction of Hell in The Inferno, John Milton's account of the war in Heaven in Paradise Lost, and the Apocalypse as depicted in The Bible’s Book of Revelations. All of these works feature realistic depictions of major battles, visceral scenes of wartime horrors and atrocities, and significant insights into the nature of heroism, cowardice, and morality in wartime.
Communal wars are common in Nigeria. Some of these wars are caused by tribal differences while others are caused by certain civil issues like the killing of an Umuofia woman in Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and the war over land dispute between Umuaro and Okperi in Achebe’s Arrow of God. Communal wars are common in Africa. In Nigeria, the civil war of 1968 to 1970 influenced many literary works. Apart from memoirs which gave accurate accounts of personal experiences during the war like Soyinka’s The Man Died amongst other works, there are rich stocks of war literatures in Nigeria in all the genres. There are many war literatures in Nigeria written after the war even presently in 2007 when a young Nigeria, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, wrote Half of a Yellow Sun, a story of the Nigerian-Biafran war almost 40 years after the war. Judging by the steady stream of publications on the subject, they still seem to have much to say. For Eddie Iroh, “to stop writing about (the war) would be to stop writing about the history of this nation. You can never write enough about that tragic thing called war” (Feuser: 150).
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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Explain the relevance of war themes in Nigerian literature.
3.2 The Nigerian Civil War in the Nigerian Novel: Okpewho’s The Last Duty
Isidore Okpewho’s The Last Duty is a war novel that explores the psychological make up of characters in the war drama. In this novel, the Federal and the Secessionist armies are locked in a fierce battle. But the author plays down the drama of external violence and concentrates fully on its deeper human dimensions. We have committed characters giving account of their experiences and roles in the war. We have Chief Toje, a big chief who conspired to the arrest and detention of his greatest business rival Oshevire. He used the opportunity of Oshevire’s arrest to attempt sexual exploitation of his wife, Aku. Aku is from the secessionist part of the country and feels unprotected in the course of the war. Chief Toje pretends offering her protection but with the intension of exploiting her. However, Toje’s impotence could not allow him achieve his evil intention. His nephew, Odibo, the cripple often goes on errand for him to Aku’s place. Aku, being sexually abused without actualizing it decides to allow Odibo calm her troubled sexual nerves. This single act makes Odibo realize that he is beyond destitution. He begins to challenge Chief Toje and this leads to the most heinous experiences of the war beyond the battlefront. Both men slaughtered each other. Aku is taken over by Major Ali for protection. Oghenovo, Aku’s son and the only child narrator in the story is busy expecting the return of his father from prison. All he does is to fight against Onome or anyone who calls his father a thief. At the return of Oshevire after being proved innocent of the charges against him, he decided to do his last duty of restoring his image, home and conscience. This leads to another tragedy which marks the unending trauma of wars.
By adopting the “collective evidence” technical style of narration, we watch without any inhibition, the adventures, the feelings, the hopes, the fears, the emotional burden and the moral state of the characters in their process of formation. Each character’s narrative portion and perspective is proportionate to his degree of involvement, and response to the conflicts. By presenting action from many points of view, the writer allows the reader to judge the entire situation himself. The dramatized or pictorial adopted allows Okpewho to give full and free verbal expression to his characters’ emotions, even those that will normally be suppressed as a result of public consciousness.
Starting with Major Ali, both the narrative and the plot structures expand gradually as if from an aperture into a wider channel until the
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climax is reached when the three main characters lose their lives tragically over a woman. The themes also come tumbling in one by one, one linking the other until there is a complex network of themes: the disruption in communal life, the mischievous manipulation of military authorities for the settlement of private scores, the sexual oppression of a destitute and forlorn woman, the abuse of children and the handicapped, the heroic assertion of personal integrity in the face of daunting odds, moral chastity pulverized by destitution, domestic crises, psychological depression, sexual impotence, etc.
In the novel, we see each character contributing his quota to the main issue. The main issue is not the civil war demon that is currently devastating the land as this is only a catalyst for the internal psychological crises plaguing all the major characters. The war only reverberates at the background and remains peripheral to the main plot of the narrative. The writer’s emphasis is on the series of individualized “civil” wars that each individual has to confront: the desperate tug-of- war between Chief Toje and his failing manhood, his death-knell struggle with his business rival, Oshevire, the fratricidal war between him and his servant over the beautiful wife of another citizen who has been jailed on trumped up charges, his pursuit of pre-war social and financial privileges, Oshevire’s struggle against war time wickedness, Aku’s moral battle with destitution and unlawful sexual urges, Major Ali’s fight to maintain law and order, etc.
In the novel we see that there is much emphasis on honor, honesty, integrity and fellow feelings. The novel does not celebrate any heroic exploits in battle, but a heroic resolve to be just and compassionate under impossible circumstances. The series of micro “civil wars” are bitter, more destructive and more physically and spiritually agonizing than the real civil war. There is economy, not only of words and action, but also of details. The tragedy is worked out within the strategic temporal space of a border town. By selecting a small border town as setting, we are offered the sense of an enclosed arena, which allows no intrusion, or escape from this world of tragedy. Okpewho chooses appropriate characters to dramatize the tale, from the peasant to the noble, from the honorable to the villain. The nature of the human problem presented in the narrative is as complex, touching and realistic as the deft technical construction of the work. Okpewho displays an impressive understanding and insight into the deep world of his characters' inner lives. Okpewho explores this grave human situation with responsibility and sympathetic understanding. Each character makes his choice and bears the consequences of his decision. In Okpewho's artistic vision, choices stem from the characters’ inner selves; thus he explores the characters' thoughts fully. He focuses his tragic vision on a closely-knit series of events and maintains this vision
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through a supremely controlled authorial distance as well as a dramatized angle of observation. There is an effective combination of emotional detachment and an incisive display of sympathy and fellow feelings.
Okpewho has helped to make the war alive to us in a new and fresh way. He succeeds very well in deploying techniques to make the reader a collaborator with him and with the characters in creating a conception of the Civil War that leaps out of the text. The novel enlarges our sympathy and opens our eyes to areas of civil war experience we never really knew well. The novel explores the dark places of human nature, the ethical and moral values of both pre-war and during-the-war Nigerian society. One basic tendency in some of the best war novels is that many of the narrators see war in more personal than social terms. They seem to have concentrated on the fate of the innocent individuals who are trapped by a destructive machine whose magnitude they cannot even imagine and whose power they are helpless to oppose. Not even children are immune. The extent to which children are affected by war is driven home by the experience of the little Oghenovo in The Last Duty. War is an organism that consumes all who come in contact with it.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
From your reading of The last Duty, discuss the effect of war on individual psyche
3.3 Nigerian Civil War Poetry: J.P. Clark-Bekederemo’s “Casualties”
Clark-Bekederemo is most remembered for his poetry, including: Poems (1961), a group of forty lyrics that treat heterogeneous themes; A Reed in the Tide (1965), occasional poems that focus on the Clark- Bekederemo's indigenous African background and his travel experience in America and other places; Casualties: Poems 1966-68 (1970), which illustrate the horrendous events of the Nigeria-Biafra war; A Decade of Tongues (1981), a collection of seventy-four poems, all of which apart from "Epilogue to Casualties" (dedicated to Michael Echeruo) were previously published in earlier volumes; State of the Union (1981), which highlights his apprehension concerning the sociopolitical events in Nigeria as a developing nation; Mandela and Other Poems (1988), which deals with the perennial problem of aging and death.
Critics have noted three main stages in Clark-Bekederemo's poetic career: the apprenticeship stage of trial and experimentation, exemplified by such juvenilia as "Darkness and Light" and "Iddo Bridge"; the imitative stage, in which he appropriates such Western poetic conventions as the couplet measure and the sonnet sequence, exemplified in such lyrics as "To a
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Fallen Soldier" and "Of Faith"; and the individualized stage, in which he attains the maturity and originality of form of such poems as "Night Rain", "Out of the Tower", and "Song". Throughout his work, certain themes recur: Violence and protest, as in Casualties; Institutional corruption, as in State of the Union ; The beauty of nature and the landscape, as in A Reed in the Tide; European colonialism as in, for example, "Ivbie" in the Poems collection; The inhumanity of the human race as in Mandela and Other Poems. Clark-Bekederemo frequently dealt with these themes through a complex interweaving of indigenous African imagery and that of the Western literary tradition.
In the poem, ‘Casualties’, Clark-Bekederemo makes a case for his people- the Ijaws, during the Nigeria-Biafra war. He recalls the scenes of the war, the effects of the war and the horrendous experiences that accompany the war. He tries to explain that though the Ijaws were not present at the scenes of war but that they suffered the same hardship. He actually explained thus:
The casualties are not only
Those who are dead
They are well out of it
The casualties are not only
Those that are wounded
They are well out of it
After explaining the various victims of the war: the dead, the wounded, the deprived and the hopeless, he further explained that the war affected those who may have been outside the war scenes:
The casualties are many
And good number well outside
The scenes of ravage and wreck
He further explained that the other victims are those who are suffering from what they never started, the wandering minstrels (the poets), and the people who could not quench the fire they started among others. He believes that war affects people beyond the scenes of war because its effects run against time, location and race. This poem resulted in one of the longest literary tussles that Nigeria has ever experienced. A young Nigerian writer by then, Odia Ofeimun reacted to J.P. Clark- Bekederemo’s poem ‘Casualties’. He claimed that Clark-Bekederemo’s poem smacks of lies and poetic insincerity. In his controversial poetry collection, The Poet Lied, Odia called Clark-Bekederemo a liar. He based his argument on the role of the Ijaws during the Nigerian-Biafran war. They were complacent and many of them like Clark-Bekederemo left Lagos for their hometowns in Ijawland until the end of the
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war. The logical question that arises out of Odia’s poetry is: should a writer write what he experienced or should he lie about it. J.P. Clark- Bekederemo never took the matter lightly. He took Odia Ofeimun to court claiming defamation of character and other legal rights. The case lasted for over ten years and was recently resolved as the judge told them to see literature as pure creativity.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
In the controversy surrounding the poem ‘Casualties’, explain the need for experience in literary creativity.
3.4 Nigerian Civil War Drama: Soyinka’s Madmen and Specialists
This play, written shortly after Soyinka was released from prison, reflects not only his personal mood at the time, but the horrors of the Nigerian civil war of 1966-1970. The ferocity of the fighting between Biafrans and other Nigerians was unprecedented in scale and intensity; and much of the nation was still in shock. Soyinka uses a variety of techniques borrowed from "absurdist" theater. These departures from realism are meant not to create a flight from reality, but to convey the terrors of reality in a more intense way than traditional realism could do. The result is a sometimes obscure but intense and moving work of scathing satire and protest. The raised hut of Iya Agba and Iya Mate is the site of a sort of commentary on the action taking place below.
Mendicants, in this play, are beggars faking a variety of ailments to prey on the sympathies of the public. They function like the chorus in a Greek tragedy, commenting on the action. It is not always clear whether they are insane or simply expressing themselves satirically. "St. Vitus' Dance" is a traditional name for epilepsy. Traditionally it is believed that some people can curse others by looking at them with an "evil eye." The dehumanizing effects of the war are reflected in their gruesome gambling game. Ostriches were traditionally said to hide their heads in the sand. To "bite the dust" is an old expression for "to die." "As" is the mysterious deity of the new ferocious faith which has swept over the nation. This is why the beggars call themselves "Creatures of As."
Si Bero is a traditional herbal healer whose brother Dr. Bero is a modern- educated doctor who has become deeply involved with the terrorist regime ruling the country. "Rem Acu Tetigisti" is nonsense perpetrated by the new government cult and repeated here each time the beggars want to evoke the senseless violence of the government. "Casting pearls before swine" is an expression based on one of Jesus' parables (Matthew 7:6) which implies wasting something valuable on
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people incapable of appreciating it. The beggars begin to mime the tortures carried out by the sadistic "specialist," Dr. Bero. They speculate about whether Bero will torture his own father, in the play referred to simply as "the old man."
Iya Mate compliments Si Bero as the sort of herbal woman who would not poison men, but discover she has inadvertently gathered a rare and deadly poison. The song they sing hints at the dangers they are experiencing. A boat full of oil would naturally avoid open flames. Why do you think Si Bero chooses Blindman as her assistant? It is a tradition to insult someone by insulting his mother. Si Bero has nothing particularly in mind by telling the Cripple that his mother is in a bad mood. The beggars' litany of medical treatments quickly deteriorates into gruesome violence: medicine has blended into torture in this play, reflected in the miming that follows. Persistently barking dogs were sometimes silenced by having their vocal chords cut. "The flaming sword" was wielded by an angel at the entrance to the Garden of Eden to bar the way back to Adam and Eve after they had been banished for their sin (Genesis 3:24). An advocate is a lawyer. How do we learn that the Blindman is also faking his handicap?
A holdall is a large suitcase. What do we learn about the relationship between Bero and the beggars? Note how the Blindman tries to soften Bero toward his sister. The beggars claim to have been discharged from the army, but Bero insists they are still under his orders. "Gaol" is the Nigerian/British spelling of "jail." Bero hints at unspeakable crimes for which the beggars were discharged. What does Bero mean by calling all his old patients corpses? What fluid is referring to when he brags of having wetted the earth with something more potent than palm wine? What is Si Bero's reaction to her brother? She believes that the herbal
magic she was taught by the old women has preserved his life. "Big Braids" highest officers.
The windy old priest trusts Dr. Bero. What kind of a character is he? A miter is the hat worn by a bishop. He is the first to introduce the subject of cannibalism. Cannibalism is not part of normal modern Nigerian life, but there were instances of it during the civil war as people sought to terrify and insult their enemies in the fiercest way possible. What is Bero's reaction to the priest's statement that his father advocated legalizing cannibalism? In the following conversation with Si Bero the doctor explains the derivation of the divine name "As" from the traditional Christian blessing, "as it was in the beginning, is now and ever shall be, Amen." In its original Christian context, it was intended as a statement of firm faith in God's eternal goodness and justice, but in the new cult it has been emptied of theological content. The phrase has been reduced to its least significant word, and now alludes to a cursed cycle
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of destruction from which there is no escape. What Dr. Bero is saying is that his father tricked him and others into eating human flesh hoping to shame them into realizing how savage they had become. Instead, it had the effect of liberating them from all moral inhibitions. What was his father's job in the war?
The Old Man is a fierce truth-teller. The beggars, who had pled insanity to escape punishment for their crimes, claim to have been driven mad by his truth-telling. What is the symbolism of the killing and eating of the flea? The cycle referred to suggests to Si Bero that the Old Man has been eaten by his son, and she is horrified. "Surgery" means "doctor's office."
In part two of the play, Aafaa's alphabetical sermon leads to the Blindman's assertion that the epileptic fits of worshippers bring not true freedom, but subjection to a vicious deity. "Circus turn" means "circus act." "Collaborate" is a much more loaded word than "assist," suggesting aiding in crimes. The Old Man has sat silent up to this point, seemingly in shock. The line "Arise, throw off thy crutches and follow me" is a combination of phrases from the Bible: Jesus saying to his would-be followers "Whosoever will come after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow me" (Matthew 16:24) and Mark 2:9 where Jesus defends his right to heal a crippled man by stating "Who is my neighbor" is uttered in Luke 10:29 by a man responding to Jesus' teaching to love your neighbor as you love yourself. "Arise, and take up thy bed, and walk." "Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace, according to thy word," is the grateful speech of Simeon who has been preserved long enough to meet the infant Jesus, implying that he can now die content (Luke 2:29). Here it has more sinister implications. Soyinka was raised as a Christian and attended a missionary school as a boy, so he knows his Bible thoroughly.
"Chop" is slang for food. What is the nature of the relationship between Bero and his father? A stationer's is a stationery store. Why does Bero emphasize that the Old Man will get everything he needs? The Old Man revels in his feat of having tricked the leaders into practicing cannibalism. Why does he say he is still needed? A recidivist is one who commits again a crime that he has committed before. Why has Bero brought the Old Man here?
How does Aafaa say he was filled with the spirit that drove him mad? Note how the two old women present themselves as part of a spiritual reality far older and more powerful than that represented by Bero. The Latin quotation which the beggars mangle is "Dulcet et decorum est pro patria more": "Sweet and proper it is to die for one's country." Just as Biblical passages about love and healing have earlier been given a
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sinister twist, so now references to patriotism and democracy are made to serve the goals of a degraded dictatorship. The song they sing is "When the Saints Go Marching In," yet another allusion to impending death. Clearly, the Old Man is doomed, but does not want to have died in vain.
Socrates was condemned to execution by drinking a potion made of hemlock berries. In the dialogue between Bero and the Old Man Bero is not so much talking of his father as of the resistance to the regime which his father represents. When he uses the word "you," he means "people like you." What does the new regime offer instead of freedom? The story is told that the ancient Greek philosopher Diogenes went about in daylight carrying a lighted lantern. When asked why he did so, he said he was looking for an honest man. Note how the beggars run a variation on this story.
After Bero leaves the stage the beggars discuss the pageantry carried out by governments which conceal their crimes while gaining international acceptance through showy ceremonies. The mock ceremony culminating in cries of "We want Him" is probably meant to remind the audience of the mob's cry for the release of Barabbas and the crucifixion of Jesus (Mark 15:6-15). Blindman's speech is a parody of an ignorant, bigoted European colonizer, pretending not to be interested in the mineral wealth of the colonized nations and maintaining the necessity of imperialism in the face of the winds of change. What sorts of negative stereotypes does he articulate about African cultures?
The speech culminates in a recitation of the formula of the new regime, implying that nothing has changed. The exploitation and oppression of colonialism has now become postcolonial exploitation and oppression. The Old Man's long speech dwells on this theme. A "cat-house" is a house of prostitution. A "poor box" is a box in a church where donations may be put to aid the poor. An heresiarch is a leading heretic, a disbeliever. The usual expression, "the ends justify the means" is often used to excuse crimes of oppression. If the purpose is worthy, then normally immoral means may be used to achieve it. Here the phrase is mocked by saying "the end shall justify the meanness." John 1:1 says "In the beginning was the Word" which is taken to be both Jesus and God. The new faith began not with God but with its priesthood. What does Aafaa mean by saying there is no division in this new religion? Monsieur l'homme sapiens is French for "Mr. Homo Sapiens."
The Old Man's last long speech is a brilliant series of puns in which he shows how debased the new faith is. Ham is forbidden to Muslims, as it is to Jews. An ashram is a Hindu place of spiritual retreat. A kibbutz is an Israeli commune. How many people are trying to kill each other at the end of this play? Who wins?
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4
Discuss how Soyinka revealed the possible causes of war in Madmen and Specialists.
4.0 CONCLUSION
It is clear that wars are not good experiences to humanity. It diminishes human integrity and arouses man’s animalistic nature to the extent of destroying feelings and fancy. In The Last Duty, we see people fighting each other against the backdrop of immoralities. Many people are victims of the war because of fabricated facts. The civil war in Nigeria provided a lot of traumatic facts in the development of this novel. The poem ‘Casualties’ by J.P. Clark-Bekederemo makes a case for those whom we thought may not be victims of the war. It exposes us to the horrendous effects of the war and the effects on the society. In Madmen and Specialists Soyinka reenacts the possible reasons for war as war itself is cause by madmen who never bothers about its after effects.
The three texts under study have given us different views and experiences of the Nigerian-Biafran war. War literatures are records of historical realities. It seems to be a new literary development. It is expected that these new literary development will force writers to become more experimental in motivating character, in fashioning new techniques in the fictional use of history to portray the evil effects of war on ordinary lives, and more war literatures will focus on the common soldier or civilian rather than the general on horseback.
5.0 SUMMARY
War has been an ever-recurring theme in human affairs all through the ages. Myths, legends, epics and other manifestations of oral and written literature bequeath to us traditional stories of war in ages past. Many of the world’s notable philosophers, statesmen and writers have had one thing or the other to say about man and his numerous wars. A tragic conflict such as war must give rise to stories because it is an event that is capable of altering the human situation drastically and completely. War is one man-made tragedy, a primitive monster, very ubiquitous and invincible even to modern man and his superior intelligence. Rulers prosecute it while political philosophers rationalize it. Even the law under certain circumstances justifies it. War has been portrayed variously as a heroic and glorious adventure, as an evil that destroys and kills, and as bringing out the best and the worst in individuals and societies. It has been described as an inevitable manifestation of natural human, aggressive instincts.
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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Answer the following questions:
1. Explain the major concerns in most Nigerian war literatures.
2. Discuss the horrendous effects of war in The Last Duty
3. What are the major causes of civil wars as revealed in Madmen and Specialists?
4. Using J. P. Clark-Bekederemo’s ‘Casualties’, explain the categories of war victims.
5. Appreciate the major themes resulting from wars as exemplified in the three texts under study in this unit.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Clark-Bekederemo John Pepper (1970). Casualties: Poems 1966-1968. London: Longman.
Ofeimun, Odia (1981). The Poet Lied. London: Longman.
Okpewho, Isidore (1976). The Last Duty. London: Longman.
Feuser W. (1986). “Anomy and beyond: Nigeria’s Civil War in
Literature”, Presence Africaine 137-138, 113-151.
Soyinka Wole (1971). Madmen and Specialists. London: Methuen.
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