CLAUSES IN SENTENCE STRUCTURE

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 INTRODUCTION

Clauses are groups of words which can modify other structures. They contain finite verbs and they also have subjects and predicates. They can function like nouns, adjectives, adverbs and sentence elements. A clause is named according to its function. In the following examples clauses and their functions are identified.

The bag which you gave me is very lovely.

(Adjectival Clause), modifying the noun ‘bag’

They hurried home because it started raining

(Adverbial clause of reason) .

3.1 Clause Types

A clause, as already explained, is a group of words which has a subject and a predicate. When the group can stand by itself and express a complete thought it is called an independent or main clause. On the other hand, when the group of words has a subject and a predicate but cannot stand on its own it is called a dependent or subordinate or bound clause.

An independent clause is a simple sentence when it stands alone. For instance the following sentence is made up of two independent clauses joined by ‘and’:

The referee blew the whistle and the football match began.

Each clause can be written as a sentence and it will express a complete thought as in the examples below:

a. The referee blew the whistle.

b. The football match began.

Subordinate Clauses

Three types of subordinate clauses are often identified in English. These are Adjectival Clauses, Adverbial Clauses and Noun Clauses. Each of these clauses can be used as a part of speech and it performs the functions of an adjective, an adverb or a noun as the case may be. Note that phrases can also perform the functions of nouns, adverbs and adjectives. In the following examples, the italicised groups of words function as parts of speech and are named after the word class or part of speech whose function they perform.

The man whose daughter won the essay competition is my uncle. (Adjectival clause modifying the noun man)

I believe that the girl is honest.

(Noun clause – subject complement)

Before the doctor arrived, the man had died.

(Adverbial clause (of time) modifying the verb ‘had died’)

Adjectival Clauses

An adjectival clause is a subordinate clause that functions as an adjective. That means that it is used to describe a noun or pronoun. An

adjectival clause is usually introduced by a relative pronoun. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that joins an adjectival clause to some word in the independent or main clause. The word to which it joins the clause is the ‘antecedent’ of the relative clause. The pronouns often used in this way are who, whom, which and that. Who and whom are often used to refer to people while which refers to things. The pronoun “that” is however

sometimes used to refer to both people and things although it should refer to things. The following sentences contain relative clauses introduced by relative pronouns.

a) Inemesit has brought the fruits that you ordered. (Adjectival clause introduced by that).

b) I like the food which my mother gave me (Adjectival clause introduced by which)

c) Children who talk early are usually intelligent (Adjectival clause introduced by who)

d) This is the man whom you spoke to me about (Adjectival clause introduced by whom)

In the first example, the subordinate clause is italicised. It is an adjectival clause which modifies the noun fruits. This clause is introduced by the relative pronoun that. The antecedent of the relative pronoun “that” is fruits.

In formal constructions, whom is used after prepositions.

a. To whom did you give the book?

b. The man to whom I gave the book is in the car.

Sometimes an adjectival clause is introduced by the word whose the possessive form of the pronoun who. In such cases, whose modifies the noun which follows it. When used in this way in an adjectival clause, whose is referred to as a relative adjective. The word relative suggests that whose refers to its antecedent in the main clause. In the following example the word whose is a relative adjective modifying the noun woman in the main clause.

This is the woman whose baby was stolen.

The relative adjective also connects the subordinate clause to woman.

Adjectival clauses are sometimes introduced by the relative adverbs,

where, and why as in the following examples:

I found the house where my sister lives.

(Adjectival clause modifying ‘house’)

The test was fixed at a time when we were all free

(Adjectival Clause modifying the noun, ‘time’).

He gave the reason why he resigned his appointment

(Adjectival clause modifying the noun, ‘reason’).

Note that adverbs modify verbs and other adverbs. The difference between a relative adverb and a simple adverb is that the relative adverb is found in an adjective clause and it refers to its antecedent in the main clause.

Adverbial Clauses

An adverbial clause is a group of words with a subject and a predicate which functions as an adverb. Adverbs tell how, when, where, to what extent, for what reason etc an action is performed. An adverbial clause answers the same questions and also expresses several other ideas which the simple adverb does not express. An adverbial clause is usually introduced by a subordinate conjunction. The connecting word is called a subordinate conjunction because the idea expressed by the clause is subordinate to the main idea in the sentence. The subordinate clause also shows the relation between the subordinate clause and the word in the main clause which the subordinate clause modifies.

Adverbial clauses express a number of different ideas. The following are ten of the important ideas, often, expressed by adverbial clauses: time,

manner, place, degree, purpose, result, condition, comparison, concession, and reason. The following subordinate conjunctions are

commonly used in adverbial clauses of various types:

(a) Time: after, before, when, whenever, until, since, while, as soon

as: Before the doctor arrived, the patient had died.

(b) Place: where, wherever;

I parked the car where it could be seen by the security men.

(c) Manner: as, as if, as though:

The girl cried as if her heart would break.

(d) Degree: that, as … as, not so … as, than;

Ekaette is not as beautiful as her sister (is beautiful).

(e) Comparison: as, than, so … as, as … as

The bus arrived earlier than it usually does.

(f) Purpose: that, so that, in order that.

Etim worked very hard so that he might meet the deadline.

(g) Condition: If, provided, provided that, unless;

I shall go home early if I finish my assignment.

(h) Result: that, so that

The food was so delicious that I asked for another plate.

(i) Concession: although, though, even if

Although she was ill, she travelled to Abuja last week.

(j) Reason: as, because, since;

The students bought the school journal because they were compelled to do so.

The adverbial clause is often preceded by the main clause. Sometimes, an adverbial clause is placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis. When that happens, it is usually separated from the main clause with a comma.

Noun Clauses

Unlike adjectival and adverbial clauses, noun clauses are not modifiers. They perform the same function as nouns. Like nouns, the noun clause performs any of the following functions:

Subject of the Sentence

A noun clause like a noun often functions as the subject of a sentence as in the following examples.

What the Chairman proposed was not feasible (Noun Clause –

subject)

Where we could rest for the night was our problem

(Noun Clause – subject)

That you are my sister is not debatable. (Noun Clause – subject)

Notice that the noun clauses in the above sentences are introduced by

what, where, how and that. These same words also introduce adjectival or adverbial clauses. The way to determine that the clause one is dealing with is a noun clause is to ensure that it performs the functions of a noun.

Direct Object of the Sentence

A noun clause frequently serves as the direct object of the verb. A noun clause used as the object completes the verb and in most cases answers the question what? asked after the verb, as in the following examples:

I believe (what) that you will be promoted.

(Noun Clause – Direct object).

We knew (what) what to do in an emergency.

(Noun phrase – Direct object). 

Predicate Noun/Subject Complement

After a linking verb, a noun clause maybe used as a predicate noun or subject complement NOT as an object as in the following:

The rumour was that he had died.

(Noun Clause – means the same as rumour)

. This is what you vowed to do.

(Noun Clause – means the same as this)

Object of a preposition

A noun clause is sometimes used as the object of a preposition as in the following examples:

Give the message to whoever is available.

(Noun clause; object of the preposition ‘to’)

I did not agree with what the doctor said.

(Object of the preposition ‘with’)

An Appositive

A noun clause is also often used in apposition with another noun, that is, it is placed near another noun to explain or identify it in some way. We often speak of a person and then add something to explain who he is or identify him in some way:

Etim, who is our driver , is very careful.

We called on Dr. Ini Uko, the one who is a feminist critic. Abuja, which is the Capital of Nigeria, is located in the North.

A noun clause is often used in apposition to a word or group of words. It usually explains an idea, fact, belief, report, rumour etc. Noun Clauses in apposition are not set off by commas as in the following examples.

The rumour that she had an accident spread rapidly. (Noun Clause in apposition with ‘rumour’).

The fact that she passed her examination made her parents proud of her. (Noun Clause, in apposition with (‘fact’).

Additionally, an appositive noun clause with that differs from a relative clause because that is not an element in the clause structure (subject, object etc) as it must be in a relative clause (Quirk and Greenbaum 1980: 383).

Noun Clauses and the introductory ‘it’

Sometimes a sentence begins with an introductory word (for instance

‘it’). It should be noted that in such sentences, the introductory word is not the real subject of the sentence. The real subject usually appears

later. In such sentences, the real subject is usually a noun clause as in the following examples:

It is evident that you are not the owner

(Noun clause – subject)

The sentence can be rewritten as follows:

That you are not the owner is evident.

In such a sentence as the above, the word ‘it’ simply fills the place normally occupied by the subject. It is an expletive. Sentences that begin with an expletive or ‘filling in’ word are usually easy to recognise because they follow the same pattern.

It is important that you leave at once

(Expletive) (Noun clause – subject)

(It) That you go home at once is important.

(transposed order)

Words that introduce Noun Clauses

A noun clause is often introduced by a subordinate conjunction. The following conjunctions are the ones normally used to introduce noun clauses: that, whether and sometimes whether … or. The main function of the subordinate conjunction is to join the noun clause to the main clause as in the following examples:

I wonder whether he will recognise me.

Okon knew that he would be punished.

Other words often used to introduce noun clauses include the relative pronouns; who, what, whatever, whoever as well as the adverbs how, when, why and where.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE (SAE)

Identify the italicized clauses as well as their functions in the sentences below:

(i) The candidates who are successful in the examination will be admitted.

(ii) Nobody could understand why the results were late.

(iii) Whoever wants to succeed must work hard.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this you studied the structure and types of clauses in English. You also learnt that the independent and dependent clauses are also referred to as main and subordinate clauses. It is particularly stressed that an English clause must always contain a subject and verb.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, the following points have been made:

A clause is a group of words with a subject and a predicate which can modify other structures and also function as a part of speech.

When a clause can stand by itself, it is called a main or independent clause.

When a clause depends on another part of the sentence, it is called a dependent or subordinate clause.

Three types of subordinate clauses are often identified: the adjectival, the adverbial and the noun clause.

The adjectival clause functions as an adjective: it modifies a noun.

The adverbial clause functions as an adverb: it modifies a verb or another adverb.

An adverbial clause gives information as to the place, time manner, reason etc. that the action expressed by the verb occurred.

The noun clause performs the functions of a noun such as serving as the subject, object, subject complement, object of a preposition and an appositive.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA) 11

Identify the ten grammatical structures underlined in the following passage and state their grammatical functions.

With the discovery of the abandoned baby boy by the side of the shrub near Hassan Street, the social welfare officers swung into action. The baby was taken to the Motherless Babies Home2 and the officials immediately started to investigate how the baby was abandoned.

Residents were approached and interrogated. But the officials got very little co-operation from the people who refused to say what they knew How could they if talking too much could get them into trouble.  

A few years past, an errant lunatic instantly was knocked down by an unknown motorist. He was spotted half dead after a torrential rain that had lasted a whole day. The discovery was reported to the police. When the police came it was not to help the injured man who was still groaning from his pains but to arrest suspects and put them into a waiting van.

(Adapted from Udofot and Ekpenyong, 2001, p.113).

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Eka, D. (1996) Elements of Grammar and Mechanics of English.

Uyo: Samuf Educational.

Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. (1980). A University Grammar of English, Longman, London