PARAMETERS FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS

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 INTRODUCTION:

A consonant is a speech sound produced by partial or complete blockage of the airflow from the lungs by speech organs. The analysis of English sounds begins with consonants rather than vowels because consonants play a more significant role in English comprehension. Consonants are typically formed by a distinct interference of the vocal organs with the airflow, making them easy to describe. English consonants are classified based on place of articulation, manner of articulation, and glottis state (voiced or voiceless).

OBJECTIVES:

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

- Define a consonant.

- Describe the various parameters used to classify a consonant.

- Identify the speech organs involved in articulating consonants.

MAIN CONTENT

 Place of Articulation

Place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract a particular sound is produced. The vocal tract's articulators fall into two groups: active and passive. Active articulators, like the tongue, can move freely, while passive articulators, like the organs of the mouth's roof, cannot. The points of articulation for English consonants are described below:

i) Bilabial: involving the two lips (labia)

ii) Labiodental: with the lower lip and the upper teeth

iii) Dental: using the tongue tip between the upper and lower teeth

iv) Alveolar: employing the blade of the tongue and the alveolar ridge behind the gums

v) Palato-alveolar: utilizing the tongue blade and the area behind the alveolar ridge

vi) Palatal: utilizing the front part of the tongue and the hard palate

vii) Velar: engaging the back of the tongue and the soft palate

viii) Glottal: involving the opening between the vocal cords.

Explanation from front to back:

Bilabial: Describing the lower and upper lips touching, blocking airflow during consonant production. English sounds [p], [b], and [m] are bilabial.

The sound [w] involves simultaneous constrictions in the vocal tract, including lip rounding, resembling a bilabial approximant—an approximate bilabial sound.

Bilabial Articulation:

When articulating a bilabial consonant, the lower and upper lips touch, creating a blockage of airflow from the oral cavity. This results in audible friction. English sounds [p], [b], and [m] exemplify bilabial articulation.

Labiodental Articulation:

During labiodental articulation, the lower lip approaches or touches the upper teeth, obstructing airflow and producing audible friction. English sounds [f] and [v] are labiodental consonants.

Dental Articulation:

In dental consonant articulation, the tip or blade of the tongue touches the upper front teeth, partially blocking airflow. English sounds [θ] and [ð] are dental consonants. There are two ways of forming dental sounds: the tongue tip can approach the back of the upper teeth without complete blockage, or the blade of the tongue can touch the bottom of the upper teeth with the tongue tip protruding between the teeth.

Alveolar Articulation:

Alveolar consonant articulation involves the tongue tip (or less often, the tongue blade) touching the alveolar ridge, located immediately behind the upper teeth. English consonants [t], [d], and [n] fully block airflow at this articulation point. Consonants [s], [z], and [l] are also articulated here. For the English consonant [r], the tongue tip curls up toward the post-alveolar region, which is the area immediately behind the alveolar ridge.

Palato-Alveolar Articulation:

When articulating a palato-alveolar consonant, the constriction occurs immediately behind the alveolar ridge and can be made with either the tip or blade of the tongue. English consonants [ʃ] and [ʒ] are produced at this point of articulation, along with their corresponding sounds [tʃ] and [dʒ].

Palatal Articulation:

For palatal consonant articulation, the body of the tongue touches the hard palate. The English consonant [j] is a palatal approximant, meaning the tongue body approaches the hard palate closely enough to create turbulence in the airstream.

Velar Articulation:

In a velar consonant, the body of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum. Consonants [k], [g], and [ŋ] are produced at this articulation point. The specific location on the velum where the tongue body hits varies depending on the surrounding vowels.

Glottal Articulation:

The glottis, the opening between the vocal folds, is involved in glottal articulation. In an [h] consonant, the narrow opening creates turbulence in the airstream flowing past the vocal folds, classifying [h] as a glottal sound in English.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1:

Write out all the consonant sounds listed as examples above and practice articulating (pronouncing) these sounds. Observe the movement of your tongue in your mouth to see if it corresponds with the various articulation descriptions studied here.

Manner of Articulation:

The second parameter used in classifying an English consonant is Manner of Articulation, which helps determine the nature and extent of obstructions or constrictions during consonant articulation.

Manner of articulation explains how the tongue, lips, and other speech organs configure to produce a specific consonant sound. The various manners of articulating English consonants are further explained below:

Stops:

A stop consonant completely cuts off airflow through the mouth. In [t], [d], and [n], the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge, interrupting airflow. In [t] and [d], there is no airflow during the stop, while in [n], airflow continues through the nose.

Nasals:

Nasal consonants have air from the lungs escaping through the nose. The soft palate is lowered to allow air passage through the nasal cavity. Closures, either bilabial, alveolar, or velar, produce nasal consonants [m], [n], and [ŋ].

Fricatives:

In a stop like [t], the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge, cutting off airflow. In [s], the tongue tip approaches but doesn't touch the ridge, creating a narrow opening for turbulent airflow (resulting in the hissing sound). Fricative consonants involve articulators approaching closely, creating audible frictional airflow. English fricatives are [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], and [ʒ].

Affricates:

An affricate is a single sound comprising a stop portion and a fricative portion. In the articulation of English [tʃ], airflow is initially interrupted by a stop similar to [t] but made a bit further back. Instead of quickly transitioning to the next sound, the tongue slowly pulls away from the stop, creating a narrow constriction after the stop, causing turbulent airflow. In [tʃ], the period of airstream following the stop is the same as the fricative [ʃ]. The English consonant [dʒ] is a voiced affricate, similar to [tʃ].

Laterals:

When articulating the first consonant in "leaf" ([lif]), although the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge or upper teeth, [l] isn't a stop consonant. Air still flows during [l] articulation because the side of the tongue drops down, leaving an opening. Sounds involving airflow around the side of the tongue are called laterals. [l] is the only lateral consonant in English.

Approximants:

In an approximant, the articulators involved in constriction are further apart than in a fricative. When articulating an approximant, the articulators are closer than in the neutral position but not close enough to cause a rush of air passing between them. English approximants are [w], [j], [r], and [l].

The Consonant Chart of English Indicating Manners of Articulation

1. Stops:

   - pen

   - bee

   - tea

   - day

   - key

   - get

2. Fricatives:

   - fan

   - eleven

   - thin

   - the

   - hat

   - sea

   - zoo

   - sheep

   - leisure

3. Affricates:

   - church

   - judge

4. Nasals:

   - man

   - now

5. Lateral Approximants:

   - lip

   - rabbit

   - was

   - yet

6. Approximants:

   - 

Source: [www.bbcenglish.co.uk](www.bbcenglish.co.uk)

Voicing:

Please revisit Module one, Unit 4, and study section 3.3 discussing how speech organs work. Understanding the mechanisms surrounding vocal cord movements is crucial for a detailed comprehension.

Voicing refers to the vibration or non-vibration of the vocal cords during sound production. When the vocal cords are held against each other at the right tension, airflow causes them to vibrate, making the sounds voiced. If there is no vibration, the sounds are voiceless. Whispering is an example of voiceless sounds where the vocal cords are apart, allowing unimpeded airflow.

Source: [www.bbcenglish.co.uk](www.bbcenglish.co.uk)

When you whispered just now, you likely observed that the glottis was wide open, resulting in voiceless sounds. In contrast, if your vocal cords are close together, airflow forces them apart, causing vibration and producing voiced sounds.

To distinguish between voiced and voiceless sounds, lightly place your finger and thumb on your throat. Say "sssssss" and "zzzzzz" to yourself, and then substitute "fffffff" and "vvvvvv" sounds. You should feel the vibration of the vocal cords when saying "zzzzzz" and "vvvvvv," but not when saying "sssssss" and "fffffff."

You can also hear the vibration by placing your index fingers in your ears while repeating the sounds. You should hear a low buzzing sound with "zzzzzz" and "vvvvvv," but almost nothing for the other two sounds. This detailed explanation is important in English, where the meaning often depends on whether a sound is voiced or not.

For instance, 'big' and 'pig' have different meanings, demonstrating the significance of voicing. English has pairs of sounds with identical places and manners of articulation, differing only in voicing: [θ] and [ð], [t] and [d], [f] and [v], [s] and [z], [ʃ] and [ʒ], [tʃ] and [dʒ].

Other English consonants do not form voiced/voiceless pairs. [h] is voiceless with no voiced counterpart. The remaining consonants—[r], [l], [w], [j], [m], [n], and [ŋ]—are all voiced. While it's physically possible to produce sounds like [n] without vocal cord vibration, English has chosen not to include such sounds in its distinctive set, though they may become voiceless under the influence of surrounding sounds, without changing the word's meaning.

Table of Voiced/Voiceless English Consonants

| Place/Manner | Voiced | Voiceless |

|--------------------|--------------------|---------------------|

| Bilabial Stops | /b/ (big) | /p/ (pen) |

| | /d/ (day) | /t/ (tea) |

| | /g/ (get) | |

| Fricatives | /v/ (van) | /f/ (fan) |

| | /ð/ (the) | /θ/ (thin) |

| | /z/ (zoo) | /s/ (sea) |

| | /ʒ/ (leisure) | /ʃ/ (sheep) |

| Nasals | /m/ (man) | /n/ (now) |

| | /n/ (now) | |

| Affricates | /dʒ/ (judge) | /tʃ/ (church) |

| | | |

| Lateral Approximant| /l/ (lip) | |

| Approximants | /w/ (was) | /j/ (yet) |

| | /j/ (yet) | /r/ (rabbit) |

| | /l/ (lip) | /r/ (rabbit) |

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE:

Study the chart and write out the sounds that pose articulatory problems for you. Write a word for each sound and pronounce it out loud to yourself.

CONCLUSION:

This unit clarified the classification of English consonants—place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing. Unlike vowels, English consonants are typically produced with audible friction.

SUMMARY:

This unit explored parameters for distinguishing consonants: place of articulation, manner of articulation, and vocal cord state.

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS:

Create two columns: Voiced and Voiceless. Indicate which sounds you think are voiced or voiceless: /t, d, g, b, v, f, s, z, p, k/

 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS:

1. Cruttenden, A. (2001). Gimson’s Pronunciation of English.

2. Kreidler, C. W. (1989). The Pronunciation of English.

3. Ladefoged, P. (1993). A Course in Phonetics.

Websites:

- [http://www.ex.ac.uk/-bosthause/Lecture/hockett.htm](http://www.ex.ac.uk/-bosthause/Lecture/hockett.htm)

- [http://www.celt.stir.ac.uk/staff](http://www.celt.stir.ac.uk/staff)