More on Feminism: Mary Wollstonecraft, Heidi Hartman, and Simone de Beauvoir

Also Read

Introduction

This article examines the central theses of certain Western feminists whose works and thoughts have influenced, and continue to influence, the writings of contemporary feminist scholars.

Objectives:

By the end of the article, you should:

- Be acquainted with the primary views of various Western feminists.

- Have knowledge about the patriarchal environment in which the selected feminist writers existed.

- Be able to identify both the individual and shared feminist perspectives of the selected writers.

More on Feminism

Feminism is a broad-based philosophical body comprising different theories. These theories, varied in approach and methodology, center around the 'woman question.' They specifically address the oppression of the female sex in relation to the male sex within a patriarchal and capitalist state. Among the various strands of feminist theory and practice are the liberal, Marxist, radical, psychoanalytic, socialist, existentialist, and postmodern dimensions.

We will explore these feminist types in connection with the reactions and responses of specific feminist writers, who generally concur that the existence of patriarchy has perpetuated the continued negativity ascribed to women in various aspects.

Mary Wollstonecraft's 'A Vindication of the Rights of Women':

Mary Wollstonecraft wrote during the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment in Europe. This period, featuring writers like Hobbes, Hume, Kant, and Locke, theorized on the importance of reason as a liberating tool for all. They believed that through reason, truths across political, social, economic, scientific, and philosophical divides would be uncovered. In 18th-century Europe, reason was placed in the public domain, populated by men, while emotions, seen as fickle, weak, and vain, were relegated to the private realm, inhabited by women and children.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, along the lines of reason and emotions, wrote the educational novel "Emile" (1763). In it, the female character, Sophie, existed solely to tend to the interests of the men in her life. The book reinforced the 18th-century view that men's nature is rational, while women's nature is emotional. Consequently, male students were to be trained in the sciences, while female students were expected to acquire 'caring' skills complementing their homemaking attributes. Professions like nursing, teaching, counseling, and cooking were traditionally associated with women.

However, Mary Wollstonecraft's "A Vindication of the Rights of Women" (1792; 1975) was written in response to a proposal by the French Minister of Education in 1791, suggesting that the French government enhance the education system for boys by incorporating sciences and humanities, while restricting girls to Home Economics and sewing. Wollstonecraft argues that women are perceived as emotional because they are not allowed to freely make decisions and are prevented from exercising their inherent power of reason. The formal education of that time was intentionally biased, training boys to be assertive and independent, while girls were educated to be dependent and submissive.

Wollstonecraft advocates for women to enjoy the same legal, political, economic, and civil rights as men. She contends that women should receive equal education to men, allowing them to utilize both their emotional and rational capacities for the benefit of all.

Wollstonecraft also contested the pervasive myth that women are weak and not as physically strong as men, asserting that women could be strong both in body and in mind if they desired. Clive Schreiner, a South African political activist and author, shared similar views with Wollstonecraft in her book "Women and Labour" (1911). Schreiner stated that a woman's primary role is to perpetuate the human race through childbearing and motherhood, but this should not be her sole occupation. Instead, she should have access to mental work, making her intellectually and professionally competent in raising children.

Betty Friedan's book "The Feminine Mystique" (1963) takes a step further by advocating that married women should not dedicate all their time and energy to caring for their husbands, children, and home. Friedan suggests they should break out of the monotonous routine by working outside the home. In "The Second Stage" (1981), she advises women not to harbor animosity towards men by viewing them solely as batterers, rapists, and harassers. Instead, Friedan encourages women to collaborate with men to bring about changes in societal values.

Heidi Hartman's 'The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism':

Marxist feminist thought centers around issues of class, class consciousness, and false consciousness. Marxist feminists assert that class plays a pivotal role in the status of women. Facing challenges in categorizing women under a single class due to bourgeois and proletarian distinctions (as women are connected to a male member of either social class), they manage to classify women based on their work, particularly housework. Margaret Benston (1969) argues for compensating women for their work within the home, criticizing the capitalist system for devaluing women's labor. However, Della Costa and James (1972) assert that women's housework is 'productive' because, by tending to the physical and emotional needs of men, it sustains capitalism.

In her essay, 'The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism' (1979), Hartmann underscores the significance of Marxist Feminism, which critiques the European capitalist system for promoting private property ownership (often including women and children) and the exploitation of women.

However, she is of the opinion that feminism and Marxism cannot be equal partners, as most often in Marxist discourse, feminism is either subsumed or entirely relegated. She urges the two concepts to be treated based on their individual strengths so that they can both challenge capitalism and patriarchy. The latter allows men to control women through monogamous/polygamous marriages, childbearing, heterosexual relationships/marriages, and women's financial dependence on them. Men also exert control over the labor of women in the public realm through the sexual division of labor, resulting in women being overworked and underpaid.

Young (1989) cautions against viewing capitalism and patriarchy as mutually exclusive. Gender relations constitute a significant part of class relations. In other words

Simone de Beauvoir’s "The Second Sex":

Simone de Beauvoir's "The Second Sex" (1949) challenges chauvinistic stereotypes about women in 20th-century post-war French society. She distinguishes between sex and gender, considering the former biological and the latter social. The label 'woman' is a social concept, inherently patriarchal and male, prescribed to signify the supposed subservient nature of the female sex. The book also underscores the dichotomy between male and female, exploring the currents of power and powerlessness inherent in both. In a society where one sex is socially considered subserviently different, they are easily seen as the 'Other.' Men perceive women as not being one of their own, leading to women's inferior status. This perspective stems from the belief that women's reproductive capacities are responsible for their perceived 'weak' state—physically, psychologically, and mentally. Men's less active roles in reproduction and more active roles in production place them in the enviable position of the 'Self.' To escape the 'Other' categorization, de Beauvoir suggests that women must reject marriage and motherhood as these limit their freedom, preventing them from having the time and creative energies to truly be themselves.

Pertaining to the gaze and the images it generates, patriarchal society views men as the object, those in control of the apparatuses of control, while women are seen as subjects, those susceptible to being controlled and dominated.

Simone de Beauvoir condemns all gender stereotypes that confine women to playing the 'second fiddle' in society, undermining their potential for personal and community development. She encourages women to surpass these negative beliefs, asserting their equality with their male counterparts.

Conclusion/Summary:

In this article, we have explored the central tenets of the postulations of three influential Western feminists – Mary Wollstonecraft, Heidi Hartmann, and Simone de Beauvoir. Their writings have significantly contributed to feminism as a liberating tool for women globally.

Specifically, we covered the following:

- Mary Wollstonecraft's seminal book, 'A Vindication of the Rights of Women';

- Heidi Hartmann's perspective on the strained relationship between Marxism and Feminism, where the former tends to overshadow the latter;

- Simone de Beauvoir's critique of the prevalent myth portraying women as the 'second sex.'

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Acholonu, Catherine. Motherism: The Afrocentric Alternative to Feminism. Afa Publications, 1995.

Chukuwma, Helen (Ed.). Feminism in African Literature: Essay on Criticism. New Generation Books, 1994.

Emenyonu, Ernest (Ed.) Literature and Society: Selected Essays on African

Literature. Zim Pan-African Publishers, 1986.

Juliana M. Nfab-Abbeny. Gender in Africa Women’s Writing: Identity, and Difference. Indiana University Press, 1997.

Kolawole, Modupe. Womanism and African Consciousness. Africa World Press, 1992.

Alkali, Muhammad, Rosli Talif, Wan R. Yahya, Jariah M. Jan. “Dwelling or Duelling in Possibilities: How (Ir)relevant are African Feminisms?” in Journal of Language Studies, 13(3), 2013, 237 – 253.

Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo. Children of the Eagle. Vista Books, 2002.

Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo. House of Symbols. Lantern Books, 2005.

Emecheta, Buchi. The Joys of Motherhood. Allison & Busby, 1979.