MAJOR WESTERN FEMINIST VIEWS: Feminism as a Popular Gender Theory

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 INTRODUCTION

This article aims to identify and discuss various Western feminist literary concepts. It will delve into the central tenets of theories by Western feminists such as Elaine Showalter, Helene Cixous, and Josephine Donovan. The objective is to enhance your understanding of feminism in general and enable you to articulate the ideological differences between Western and African feminism.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this article, you should be able to:

- Discuss feminism from a Western perspective.

- Demonstrate knowledge of the different strands of Western feminism.

- Identify the central tenets of feminist theories proposed by Elaine Showalter, Helene Cixous, and Josephine Donovan.

Feminism as a Popular Gender Theory

One of the most prevalent gender theories in literary study since the beginning of the last century is feminism. This theory aligns with the radical conception of literary texts as discourse-oriented, as reflected in the views of the German philosopher F. W. Nietzsche (1844-1900) and the New Historicism popularized by Michel Foucault. Many societies worldwide are inherently patriarchal, both in theory and practice, institutionalizing various fears and anxieties about the mystery and power of women into myths, beliefs, and folklore that have persisted for centuries. Feminism, as a body of gender-sensitive theories, challenges this patriarchal stance, advocating through various discourses for the equity of the sexes for the overall benefit of society.

Over the years, feminism, as a body of thought, has expanded to encompass other types and categories, reflecting the diverse shades, stances, thoughts, views, concepts, and political divides of women worldwide. While Alice Walker calls for the complementarity of the sexes, others insist on restoring women to their natural and unbiased position in society. The French feminist Monique Wittig challenges the term "feminism," as it does not make space for lesbians. In the 20th century, Virginia Woolf, through her timeless article, 'A Room of One's Own' (1929), describes women as the looking-glass of man. Other feminists like Simone de Beauvoir, Mary Eagleton, Betty Friedan, Julia Kristeva, Helene Cixous, and Luce Irigaray have been more confrontational in their postulations. Through their writings, they adopt the moral philosophy of Phallogo (Phallus) Centrism, proposing the use of humor and parody to shift the epicenter of patriarchy.

This position presents an opposing view to Sigmund Freud's concept of penis envy that women experience in their relationships with men.

However, the central tenet of feminism remains unchanged: women are oppressed based on their sex, and this should not be the case. Feminism advocates for elevating the status of women in patriarchal societies. Western feminists have expressly condemned the prejudice against women and their mistreatment in patriarchal societies through various forms of writing.

Feminist criticism challenges male-dominated traditions and conventions in literature, seeking to end 'phallocentric' discourses that treat women as underdogs or exclude them as subjects. In 'The Laugh of the Medusa' (1975), Helene Cixous advised women to write themselves into the text and actively participate in writing. There is no neutral writing, as there is no neutral reading; both are informed by socio-cultural and political positions. Feminists aim to challenge the traditional canon dominated by male-authored texts, examining women's literature, the relationship between literature and male biases, and how literature can be used to overcome such biases. The primary goal of feminist criticism is to change the existing power relations between men and women.

Elaine Showalter’s Gynocriticism

Feminist literary studies focus on women not only as consumers of literary texts produced by men but also as critical readers and writers. This perspective was championed by American feminist critic Elaine Showalter in her 1979 essay titled 'Towards a Feminist Poetics.' In this essay, where she introduced a new feminist concept, gynocriticism, Showalter raises critical questions such as the themes associated with female literary works, the roles of female characters in texts, and the implicit presuppositions of a given text regarding its readers. Feminist critics like Showalter have also critiqued cultural stereotypes of women in literary texts that often portray women as immoral, dangerous seductresses, insatiable, lazy, helpless, unintelligent, among other vices.

The concept of 'gynocriticism' explores the relationship between literature and women, demystifying the male author's perspective about women and shifting the focus to women as producers (writers) and consumers (readers). Through this concept, women's literary works, long overlooked or subsumed under male literary criticism, are unearthed and critically appreciated. Gynocriticism gives a presence to women's writing by establishing it as an independent and distinct literary discourse, thereby fostering women's writing, interest in women's writing, and criticism.

The interface between the portrayal of women in male-authored writings and female literary discourse has been elucidated by the American feminist writer Carolyn Gold Heilbrun, the author of the book "Reinventing Womanhood" (1979), and by Catharine Stimpson, the editor of "Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society" (1974 – 1980). They likened this interface to the Old Testament, "looking for the sins and errors of the past," with gynocritics representing the New Testament, "seeking the grace of imagination." With Showalter's gynocriticism, the former oblivion of women and their writings has passed away, giving rise to a new literary consciousness about women's writings that has emerged and is here to stay.

Helene Cixous: 'The Laugh of the Medusa'

The French writer, critic, playwright, and scholar, Helene Cixous, has extensively addressed women and writing, advocating for women to embrace writing as a form of liberation from repressed desires and patriarchal bondage. In her seminal essay, 'The Laugh of the Medusa' (1975), Cixous emphasizes feminine writing, asserting that women should write and continue to write, regardless of the challenges tempting them to abandon writing. She believes women are in the best position to write about themselves, as they are the recipients of whatever life throws at them, whether good or bad.

For women, writing should be both personal and historical. It is personal because writing can be likened to a woman's body. When patriarchy repressed female writing and criticism, it also did the same to the woman's body, suppressing her desires and ambitions. However, through the act of writing, the woman inscribes herself, leaving an indelible mark on the words. This way, she becomes real and present, perpetuating herself and her identity for all ages. Through writing, Cixous believes that women boldly enter into history, becoming agents of change for womanhood as a whole.

Josephine Donovan and the Moral Aspects of Feminist Criticism

Feminists have consistently focused on the 'image' of women in literature, critiquing how female characters are portrayed in literary works. According to the Frankfurt School of Marxist Criticism, image perception can sometimes be 'negative,' rejecting the political, economic, and social structures that institutionalize the subservient nature of women. In contrast to male literature, feminist criticism advocates for a positive image of women, promoting women's writings and personhood.

In her book, *Feminist Theory: The Intellectual Traditions of American Feminism* (1985; 2012), Donovan offers a comprehensive critique of masculine literary theories such as Marxism, Freudianism, and Existentialism. She examines their contributions to sustaining gender beliefs about the perceived irrationality of women. These theories, based on fallacious reasons, perpetuate a male-centric image, denying women their personhood and portraying them as incomplete, suggesting that women only achieve a sense of completeness in their relationship with men.

Josephine Donovan and the Diversity of Feminist Theories

Donovan turns her critical lens toward feminism, examining its history and the various types it encompasses. She briefly discusses radical feminism, liberal feminism, ecofeminism, global feminism, gynocriticism, among others. These theories provide a realistic portrayal of women, affirming their authenticity. As feminism gained traction in academia, it assumed a political dimension, empowering women to advocate for more rights based on principles of equity and justice.

CONCLUSION/SUMMARY

In this article, we have delved into feminism as a prominent gender theory, focusing specifically on the ideas and assertions of selected feminist critics and scholars. The key discussions include:

- Feminism as a Popular Gender Theory

- Elaine Showalter’s Gynocriticism

- Helene Cixous: 'The Laugh of the Medusa'

- Josephine Donovan and the Moral Aspects of Feminist Criticism

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Acholonu,    Rose    (1995).    Family    Love    in    Nigerian    Fiction:    Feminist

Perspectives. Owerri: Achisons Publishers.

Homi, Bhabha K. (1994).  The Location of Culture. London: Routledge.

Bonnie, Frederick & Susan H. Mcleod (Eds.) (1993). Women and the   Journey - The Female Travel Experience. Washington:  Washington   State University Press. Chatman, Seymour (1975). Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film. Durham:  Duke University Press.

Focault, Michael (1970). The Order of Things. New York: Pantheon.