FEMINIST EXPRESSIONS IN LITERATURE: REFORMS, RESISTANCE AND REVOLUTION

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 INTRODUCTION

This article aims to explore various feminist expressions from different perspectives. The objectives of this unit are outlined below:

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this article, you should be able to:

- Identify different categories of feminism.

- Explain the specific types within the categories of feminism.

- Discuss the major tenets of feminism generally.

Feminist Expressions in Literature

Feminism encompasses a diverse range of concepts and perspectives, reflecting the multitude of ideas from women worldwide. Since the mid-19th century, numerous theories and counter-theories have emerged, all aiming to create a more equitable society where everyone is treated with fairness and justice.

There are between eight to ten broad categories of feminism, which, based on their ideological leanings, have been further grouped into three general categories by Judith Lorber, an international scholar in gender studies, in her book "The Variety of Feminisms" (1997). Below is a brief discussion of these different categories of feminism.

Gender Reform Feminisms

These feminisms thrived between the 1960s and 1970s, initiating the second wave of feminism. Influenced by Marxist thoughts on individual rights, class consciousness, and capitalism, they were also rooted in anti-colonial sentiments and national development. This category encompasses three types of feminisms: liberal feminism, Marxist and socialist feminism, and development feminism.

Liberal Feminism

 Based on the belief in the equality of men and women, asserting that they are created equally. Accordingly, there should be no differential treatment in the private and public spheres of life. For instance, both men and women should enjoy equal rights and opportunities in education and labor. Liberal Feminism advocates breaking down dichotomies in abilities and capabilities, allowing men to pursue careers in traditionally female-dominated fields and vice versa. Despite challenging the perception of women's inferiority, liberal feminists have faced criticism for perceived conformity in their ideas and strategies.

Marxist and Socialist Feminism

This feminism attributes gender discrimination against women to the capitalist/private property system. Drawing on the general tenets of Marxism, Marxist and Socialist feminists criticize state structures and patriarchal beliefs that confine women and their labor to the home. Women's work is often unrecognized and unpaid, tying a woman's sense of selfhood to her role in the household, centered around her husband and children. Within the framework of Marxist and Socialist feminism, the family is perceived as a locus of discrimination against women, perpetuating their invisibility and subjugation to husbands and fathers. Even in situations where women engage in paid work, they commonly receive lower wages than men, as illustrated by recent instances of gendered wage disparity or salary discrimination, such as those observed at the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC).

Due to lodged complaints from many of the corporation’s female staff, the Equality and Human Rights Commission investigated these claims. They scrutinized financial records dating back to 2016 and found that male presenters and stars were paid significantly more than their female counterparts. For instance, in the BBC’s 2016/2017 annual report, British star Chris Evans earned between £2.2m and £2.25m, while Claudia Winkleman, the highest-paid female celebrity, earned between £450,000 and £500,000 (BBC News, 29 June, 2018). Consequently, Marxist and Liberal Feminists advocate for equal pay for women and a comprehensive overhaul of the prevailing economic system.

Development Feminism

This feminism centers on the economic empowerment of women in postcolonial settings, highlighting how colonialism in many African countries constrained women's earning opportunities through gender-based division of labor. Women predominantly engaged in subsistence-level labor, and the little they earned often went back into running their households. Post-colonially, economic opportunities expanded for men, perpetuating the exploitation of women. Development feminists call for women to not only be involved in food production but also take charge of its distribution. Additionally, they emphasize revisiting traditions and cultural beliefs that economically disempower women.

There have been several critical questions raised against the types of gender reform feminisms discussed earlier. For instance, liberal feminists face scrutiny regarding whether they advocate for increased representation of women in male-dominated professions or demand equal pay for women in professions comparable to those of their male counterparts. Marxist/Socialist feminists attribute women's disempowerment to patriarchal family settings and propose state remuneration for full-time housewives. However, this approach potentially exposes women to the whims of a male-dominated state, which may cease remuneration at its discretion, leaving women in a vulnerable position. Development feminists encounter a significant challenge with the persistence of cultural practices and traditions that subject women and girl children to complete control by men.

Gender Resistant Feminisms

The earlier feminists' efforts bore fruit, with more women gaining entry into male-dominated professions and pursuing STEM courses (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). However, women soon realized that despite these changes, they were still treated as second-class citizens, and entrenched gender myths persisted. It seemed as if patriarchy was mocking their progress. Equality and equity were lacking in the workforce, at home, and in society. This realization led to the emergence of a more assertive category of feminism – the resistant type. Within this category, we find radical feminism, lesbian feminism, psychoanalytical feminism, and standpoint feminism.

Radical Feminism

Radical feminists vehemently oppose everything male, attributing patriarchy and men as responsible for every negative aspect affecting women. They assert that men, state structures, and institutions are accountable for maintaining the inferior status of women across all societies.

The institution of the family oppresses women, formal education is deemed ineffective in improving women's status, men resort to physical force and violence to silence women, marriage is viewed as a form of slavery, and the media objectify women as sexual commodities. Both private and public spaces are seen as contributing to the dehumanization of women. In response, radical feminists advocate for women-only families and workforces and the dismantling of anything inhibiting women's movement and dignity. Past actions included public burnings of pants and bras, symbols perceived as designed by men to discomfort women. Their efforts led to the establishment of rape centers, battered women's homes, female desks at police stations, women-only hospitals, and childcare facilities.

Lesbian Feminism

Many feminists in the radical group align with lesbian feminists due to shared views. However, the latter group takes it a step further by rejecting everything male and promoting relationships, including sexual ones, exclusively between women.

Psychoanalytical Feminism

This branch of feminism emerged through a feminist analysis and interpretation of the works of major psychoanalysts such as Sigmund Freud (1905; 2016), Jacques Lacan (1958; 2006), and Michel Foucault (1978). These psychoanalysts explored the formation of boys' and girls' sexuality from childhood. Freud, for instance, discussed boys' fear of losing the phallus and girls' penis or phallus envy. Both genders developed strategies to cope with these emotional challenges. Boys, fearing the loss of their phallus (masculinity), often distance themselves from their mothers by adopting a cloak of masculinity, impacting their relationships and lifestyles. Girls, desiring the power associated with the phallus, long for emotional closeness with boys and aspire to give birth to boys to experience a semblance of this masculine power. These perspectives encapsulate male psychoanalysts' views on human sexuality.

To counter this, French psychoanalytical feminists advocate for the celebration of womanhood and motherhood. They encourage women to express their experiences through writing, singing, and producing literary works that highlight biological aspects such as menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth, menopause, and more. This approach aims for women to find fulfillment within themselves and resist a patriarchal culture dominated by phallic symbols like aggression, violence, and domination.

Standpoint Feminism 

This feminism challenges the production of knowledge, its producers, and the knowledge itself. It critiques Western Science and Social Science for generating flawed and negative knowledge about women's mental and biological abilities. Standpoint feminism calls for women-centric methodologies, the promotion of feminist research, and the amplification of women's voices from the 'silent room' into the public arena.

Just as we observed with Gender Reform Feminisms, there are also criticisms against the types of feminisms within Gender Resistant Feminisms. 

For radical feminism, a major criticism is its failure to recognize and acknowledge the classes within the broad term 'women,' assuming all women experience the same disempowering situations in diverse patriarchal communities. Social classes based on race and religion, in particular, exist among women, a nuance often overlooked by radical feminism. Additionally, this stance has been seen as closing off the recognition of other social classes that exist among both men and women. 

Regarding lesbian feminism, there is indecision among adherents about the inclusion of bisexual feminists in their movement.

Psychoanalytic feminists' celebration of womanhood is criticized for further emphasizing the distinction between men and women, potentially accentuating differences. 

Standpoint feminists' insistence on women producing knowledge faces criticism for not inherently ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the knowledge generated.

Gender Revolution Feminisms

This category of feminism criticizes the patriarchal order that favors certain men over women and men in lower social strata. It also critiques cultural beliefs, practices, and mass media for institutionalizing a dominant order in all spheres. Gender Revolution Feminisms comprise multi-ethnic feminism, men’s feminism, social construction feminism, post-modern feminism, and queer theory.

Multi-Ethnic Feminism

This feminism encourages recognizing disempowerment from various perspectives, acknowledging its multi-faceted and sometimes complex nature. Women experience disempowerment not only from men in both upper and subordinate classes but also from fellow women based on factors such as race, ethnicity, economics, religion, and politics. Similarly, men may face discrimination from other men based on these factors. Multi-ethnic feminists emphasize that women experience disempowerment from multiple angles and believe that cultural products created by women are emotionally expressive, just as dominant males’ creative productions reflect their values and lifestyles.

Men’s Feminism

This branch of feminism aims to bring men to the forefront of attention by highlighting that men, too, face discrimination, often from other men. It not only acknowledges the diversity of men but also emphasizes the differences inherent within this diversity. Men’s feminism critiques hegemonic masculinity, which defines manhood in terms of being working class, middle class, white, successful, and heterosexual. It also criticizes traditional male bonding sites that encourage physical aggression against 'weak' men and women, including organized sports, the military, heterosexual family structures, and fraternities. Men’s feminism particularly advocates for the rights of homosexuals who often face discrimination within heterosexual patriarchy.

Social Construction Feminism

Feminists in this group connect women’s lower status in society to gender, considering it the pedestal upon which society is built. They argue that gender permeates every aspect of life, dictating prescribed rules and regulations that shape people's lives. In this view, gender is inseparable from inequality, used to justify unequal relations between men and women. Gender is so pervasive that it is no longer seen merely as a social construct but is perceived as natural and biological. Consequently, everything – actions, roles, responsibilities, division of labor in the home, the workforce, sports, education, politics, economics, sexuality, religion, law, medicine, expected behavior, and appearance for men and women, boys and girls – is gendered. Gender, therefore, exerts power and control over all aspects of life.

Postmodern Feminism and Queer Theory

These feminist types challenge the widely accepted notion that gender is fixed and dual, asserting that there are numerous sexualities beyond the traditional heterosexual binary. They contend that cultural texts inherently carry gendered views and beliefs, influencing readers and audiences unconsciously. For instance, a television soap opera depicting a man, his wife, and children may reinforce the idea that heterosexuality is the norm, with the man as the head and the wife and children serving his needs. These cultural productions shape our perspectives on gender and sexuality, leading us to reject alternative types that deviate from the norm. Queer theorists advocate for expanding beyond mainstream ideas of male or female, embracing other forms such as cross-dressing.

In essence, gender revolution feminists challenge the culture of binary oppositions prevalent in language, behavior, professions, family dynamics, appearance, and sexuality. They advocate for a broader discourse that encompasses a diverse range of types and categories.

CONCLUSION/SUMMARY

In this article, we provided a comprehensive overview of feminism, encompassing various categories and types. These types project distinct views and stances, contributing to the richness and engagement of the feminist discourse.

Throughout this unit, you have gained insights into the following:

- General definitions of Feminism.

- Gender Reform Feminisms.

- Gender Resistant Feminisms.

- Gender Revolution Feminisms.

- Specific criticisms against each category.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Lorber, Judith. The  Variety of Feminisms and Their Contributions to Gender Equality. University of Oldenburg, 1997.

Lorber, Judith. Paradoxes of Gender. Yale University Press, 1994.

Evans, Judith. Feminist Theory Today: An Introduction to Second Wave Feminism. Sage, 1995.

Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs. Deceptive Distinctions: Sex, Gender and the Social Order. Yale University Press, 1988.

Chukuwma,  Helen  (Ed.). Feminism  in African Literature: Essay  on  Criticism.  New Generation Books, 1994.

Hennesy, Rosemary. Materialist Feminism and the Politics of Discourse. Routledge, 1993. Boserup, Esther. Women’s Role in Economic Development. St. Martin’s Press, 1970.

James, Adeola. In Their Own Voices: African Women Writers Talk. James Currey, 1999.   Juliana M. Nfab-Abbeny. Gender in Africa Women’s Writing: Identity, and Difference. Indiana University Press, 1997.

Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice. Harvard University Press, 1982.

Kolawole, Modupe. Gender Perceptions and Development in Africa: A Socio -Cultural Approach.  Arabon Academic Publishers, 1998.

Kolawole. Modupe. Womanism and African Consciousness. Africa World Press, 1992.

Phelan, Shane. Identity Politics: Lesbian Feminism and the Limits of Community. Temple University Press, 1989.

Chodorow, Nancy. The Reproduction of Mothering. University of California Press, 1978. Harding, Sandra. The Science Question in Feminism. Cornell University Press, 1986.

Collins, Patricia Hill. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. Unwin Hyman, 1990.

Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mother’s Garden. Harcourt Brace, 1984.

Messner, Michael A. Politics of Masculinities: Men in Movements. Sage, 1997.

Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality: An Introduction. (Trans. by Robert Hurley). Pantheon, 1978.

Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.

Wekesser, Carol (Ed.). Feminism: Opposing Viewpoints. Greenhaven Press Inc., 1995. Batra, Eli. Feminism and Folk Art. Lexington Books, 2019.

Sotunsa, Mobolanle, and Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso (Eds.). Gender, Culture and Development in Africa. Pan-African University Press, 2017.