INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we learned that English vowels are generally described using certain important parameters, including tongue position, lip rounding, and duration. In this unit, you will study English vowels in detail and understand why they are considered distinct sound units that require careful study, especially due to the tendency to confuse vowels with similar articulation.
OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this unit, you should be able to:
- Identify all the vowels of English.
- Describe the physical characteristics of the vowels.
- Improve your production of English vowels.
MAIN CONTENT
Categorization of vowels
A vowel is any vocal sound that can be produced continuously without blocking the oral cavity. The lips are open, and the tongue does not touch the interior of the mouth, known as the oral cavity. The "oral cavity" excludes the larynx. The ways vibrations and tensions in the larynx affect a vowel's quality are termed phonation, with the simplest form known as voicing. Voiced vowels occur when the vocal cords, cartilages inside the larynx, vibrate. In all languages, most vowels are voiced. English, specifically, has only voiced vowels, categorized into three groups: Monophthongs, Diphthongs, and Triphthongs—all of which should be learned through listening and imitation.
The Monophthongs (Simple vowels)
An English monophthong or simple vowel is a single sound produced with the free flow of air from the lungs out of the mouth (oral cavity). The mouth passage remains unobstructed by speech organs like the tongue, teeth, and lips. It's crucial to note that, although the tongue and lips change shape according to the vowel type, the air stream flows freely without any hindrance.
The monophthongs are further classified into short vowels and long vowels. Long vowels are denoted by two dots or a colon, while short vowels have none. These vowels are typically categorized into front, back, and central vowels as follows:
Front vowels: i:, ɪ, e, æ
Back vowels: u:, ʊ, ɔ, ɔ:, a:
Central vowels: ə, ɜ:, Λ
These vowel distinctions, determined by lip, tongue, and palate positions, can be subtle and challenging to detect.
The Vowel chart
The vowel chart may seem complex, but its purpose is to depict the tongue's location concerning mouth openness during vowel production. For example, the front closed vowel /i:/ implies a forward tongue position in a relatively closed mouth. Try saying it and contrasting it with the open back sound on the chart.
The presented vowel charts aim to map tongue and jaw positions in articulating vowels. Since determining exact lip, tongue, and palate positions is challenging, there's no universally agreed-upon vowel chart.
It's essential to study the various simple vowels in chart A to appreciate differences in their production. Vowel chart B illustrates monophthongs based on tongue positions. Compare this with vowel chart A, where words with these vowels are presented. Pronounce the words aloud and observe the different tongue positions.
The Monophthongs presented in a vowel parallelogram illustrate tongue positions in the oral cavity during the production of simple vowels.
The tongue is raised from here:
Detailed description of the Monophthongs (Simple vowels)
An English monophthong or simple vowel is a singular sound produced with a free flow of air from the lungs out of the mouth (oral cavity). The mouth passage remains unobstructed by speech organs such as the tongue, teeth, and lips. It's crucial to note that, although the tongue moves and the shape of the lips changes according to the vowel produced, the air stream flows freely without any obstruction.
Monophthongs, like other vowels, as previously noted, are determined by changes in the position of the lips, tongue, and palate. However, these changes can be subtle and challenging to detect. While lip differences are easily seen and felt, tongue differences are difficult to observe or feel. Therefore, all English vowels must be learned through listening and imitation.
English comprises twelve monophthongs, divided into seven short and five long vowels. Another way to categorize them is based on where they are produced in the mouth—front, central, or back. Further qualifications include the height of the tongue and lower jaw, whether the lips are rounded or spread, and whether they are short or long.
The Front Vowels
These are simple vowels articulated toward the front part of the oral cavity, numbering four:
- /i:/
- A long vowel produced with the tip of the tongue against the lower front teeth while the lips are slightly rounded. This vowel shares articulation with /ɪ/, the short form of /i:/. However, /i:/ has many spelling forms distinct from /ɪ/, such as 'ea' in eat, 'ee' in see, 'ei' in receive, etc.
- Notably, /i:/ and /ɪ/ have some similar spelling forms, for example:
- /i:/: 'e' in even, 'ie' in thief
- /ɪ/: 'e' in except
- To distinguish /i:/ from /ɪ/, consider that /i:/ is longer and has a different sound quality. Practice pronouncing pairs of words, paying attention to both the length and quality of the vowel.
/i:/
- eat
- sheep
- wheat
- cheek
- reach
/ɪ/
- it
- ship
- wit
- chick
- rich
Interference Problems
Nigerian speakers often face difficulty distinguishing between the long /i:/ and the short /ɪ/, especially in connected speech. Listen to the sentences and choose the correct option:
1. Place the spoon on the other... (cheek / chick)
2. This is the... (sheep / ship) I talked about yesterday.
3. Driving in Lagos is a game of... (wheats / wits).
/e/
This is the third front vowel sound, a short vowel produced by raising the front part of the tongue toward the alveolar region of the mouth. Refer to the vowel charts on pg 72 for the lips' position, halfway between open and close. This vowel occurs in many Nigerian languages, making it easier for speakers to articulate.
Listen to the pronunciation of the following groups of words where /i:/, /ɪ/, and /e/ are contrasted:
- /i:/: lead, wheat, been, cheek, feel
- /ɪ/: lid, wit, bin, chick, fill
- /e/: led, wet, Ben, cheque, fell
Practice these words to ensure each word sounds distinct.
/æ/
This is the fourth front vowel, a short vowel produced when the front part of the tongue is slightly raised towards the roof of the mouth. It does not occur in Nigerian languages, leading to articulation difficulties. Many speakers mistakenly pronounce it as 'ah,' suggesting it is a back vowel. Typically spelled as 'a' in English (e.g., cap, bad, pack), an unusual spelling symbol for this sound is 'ai' as in plait.
Interference Problems
The /æ/ vowel poses a challenge for many Nigerian speakers who often substitute the 'ah' sound in place of the /æ/ vowel. Listen to the following contrasting words with /ɪ/, /e/, and /æ/. After listening, pronounce the words yourself to check your accuracy.
“
/ɪ/ /e/ /æ/
- bid - bed - bad
- pit - pet - pat
- sit - set - sat
- knit - net - gnat
- bit - bet - bat
Now, listen to these sentences and write out the words containing the front vowels you've studied.
“
1. I bet you bat better than your fans in the fens.
2. I bet you bat better than your fans in the fens.
3. I can bet with my leg that they'll beat you in the league.
The Back Vowels
These vowels are typically articulated towards the back part of the oral cavity, with rounded lips, narrowing the vocal tract. The vowels are as follows:
/a:/
- car
- pass
- palm
- laugh
- heart
- Berkshire
Interference Problems
Some may incorrectly pronounce the long /a:/ as if it's the short /æ/. The difference between the two vowels is clearly illustrated in the following pairs of words:
/æ/ /a:/
- ban - pat
- cat - bat
- pack -
Pronunciation Practice
Now, listen to these sentences and try reading them out loud to yourself.
“
- 'My hard-hearted aunt had a fat cat in her flat.'
- 'Can I have a chat with you about the chart?'
- 'Put the cat in the cart, please.'
/Λ/
This is a short vowel articulated with the back of the tongue, and the jaw is open. The lips are rounded for the pronunciation of this vowel. Common spellings for this vowel include 'o', 'au', 'ou', 'a' - as in 'dog, laurels, cough, and want'. It's similar to /a:/ in quality, but the lips may be slightly rounded for /Λ/. Pronounce the following words out loud:
/a:/
- lark
- card
- dark
- last
- carp
/Λ/
- lock
- cod
- dock
- lost
- cop
Interference Problems
A major issue observed is that some Nigerians pronounce the short /Λ/ as the long /ɔ:/.
/ɔ:/
This is a long back vowel produced by raising the back of the tongue. The lips are usually rounded, and it has various spelling symbols. Examples include 'al', 'aw', 'ar', 'au', 'oar', 'oa', 'or', 'oor', 'ou', 'o' - as in 'walk, saw, quarter, caught, soar, broad, more, door, bought, and force'.
Interference Problems
Many Nigerians tend to use the long /ɔ:/ to replace its short counterpart /ʊ/ in English words.
Listen to the following pairs of words where the vowels /ɔ/ and /ɔ:/ are contrasted:
“
/ɔ/
- shod
- cod
- wad
- Poll
- spot
/ɔ:/
- shored
- cord
- ward
- Paul
- sport
/ʊ/
This is a short back vowel described as a back vowel, though the tongue part used is nearer to the center than the back. The lips are rounded, and it has spelling symbols like 'u', 'o', 'oo', 'ou' - as in 'put', 'women', 'foot', 'could'.
Pronunciation Practice
Pronounce the following words out loud and check your pronunciation:
/æ/
- hat
- fat
- lack
- pat
/ʊ/
- foot
- could
- full
- pull
- wood
/u:/
This long vowel is articulated with the back of the tongue raised to a height just below the 'close' position while the lips are rounded. It has various spelling symbols such as 'o', 'oo', 'ew', 'eau', 'u', 'ue', 'ui', 'iew', 'oe', 'ou' - as in 'do', 'spoon', 'chew', 'beauty', 'rule', 'true', 'fruit', 'view', 'shoe', 'you'.
Pronunciation Practice
Pronounce the following words and sentences, paying attention to the differences between the short /ʊ/ and the long /u:/:
/ʊ/
- foot
- could
- full
- pull
- wood
/u:/
- food
- cooled
- fool
- pool
- wooed
“Luke booed the fool whose foot was in the food.”
‘Pull the book out of the fire!’, she shouted angrily.
‘Peter wooed the lady he should have booed.’
The Central Vowels
/Λ/
For the articulation of this vowel, the center of the tongue is raised while the jaw is 'open'. The lips are neutrally shaped. Spelling symbols for this vowel include 'u', 'o', 'ou', 'oo', 'oe' - as in 'hut, come, young, blood, and does'.
Interference Problems
This vowel, /Λ/, is absent in Nigerian languages, making it challenging for Nigerian English speakers to pronounce correctly. It's observed that many Nigerians tend to pronounce /Λ/ as /ɔ/, but there is a qualitative difference between the two vowels. The sets of words below illustrate the contrast between /Λ/ and /ɔ/ on one hand and between /Λ/ and /æ/ on the other.
“
/Λ/
- hut
- stuck
- cut
- luck
- cup
/ɔ/
- hot
- stock
- cot
- lock
- cop
/æ/
- hat
- stack
- cat
- lack
- cap
Now, pronounce these words out loud and check if you distinguish the differences between them.
/3:/
To produce this vowel, the center of the tongue is raised to a height between 'close' and 'open' positions, and the lips are neutral in shape. Spelling symbols for /3:/ include 'ir', 'er', 'or', 'ur', 'ear', 'our' - as in 'bird', 'her', 'work', 'church', 'search', and 'journey'.
Interference Problems
Many speakers in Nigeria find it challenging to pronounce this long central vowel correctly. Educated speakers often incorrectly pronounce it as /e/. For instance, some might say /ʃet/ instead of /ʃ3:t/ for the word 'shirt'.
Now, listen carefully as the following groups of words are pronounced and then pronounce the pairs of words yourself. Pay attention to the differences between /3:/ and the other vowels.
“
/ɔ:/
/3:/
/a:/
/3:/
- ward
- word
- parch
- perch
- born
- burn
- hard
- heard
- warm
- worm
- cart
- curt
- cord
- curd
- barn
- burn
- torn
- turn
- pard
- purred
/e/
/3:/
/Λ/
/3:/
- end
- earned
- cub
- curb
- yen
- yearn
- such
- search
- debt
- dirt
- shut
- shirt
- best
- burst
- hub
- herb
- edge
- urge
- fun
- fern
It's crucial to be careful in identifying the spellings that use /3:/ while learning, as mispronunciation can occur due to a wide range of possibilities.
/ə/
This short central vowel sound, called the schwa, is produced by raising the tongue towards the roof of the mouth while keeping the lips in a neutral position. It's not represented by specific spelling symbols but is crucial for proper pronunciation in English. It is represented by many letters usually in unaccented (unstressed) syllables. Examples include 'a', 'er', 'u', 're', 'ou', 'our', 'o', 'ar', 'ough' - as in 'alone, concert, column, there, famous, colour, kingdom, backward, and thorough'.
Interference Problems
The central vowel of English, /ə/, is absent from the sound inventory of any Nigerian language. Consequently, many Nigerian speakers of English tend to replace this sound with the nearest equivalents in their mother tongue. For instance, in 'again,' the /ə/ sound is articulated like the diphthong /ei/, while in a word like 'famous,' the /ə/ vowel is replaced by the /ɔ:/ vowel.
Pronunciation Practice
Listen carefully as the following words are pronounced, and then practice pronouncing them on your own.
“
/ə/
- Initial position
- obey /əˈbei/
- approve /əˈpru:v/
- attend /əˈtend/
- allow /əˈlaʊ/
- Medial position
- dinners /ˈdinəz/
- contain /kənˈtein/
- menace /ˈmenəs/
- hindered /ˈhɪndəd/
- Final position
- measure /ˈmeʒə/
- sailor /ˈseɪlər/
- picture /ˈpɪktʃər/
- Africa /ˈæfrɪkə/
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE ON MONOPHTHONGS 1
Read the following pairs and groups of words as numbered – if possible into a tape – in such a way that a listener will be able to tell them apart.
- (i) feel, eat, sheep
- (ii) fill, it, ship
- (v) hat, bad, car
- (iii) stack, bird, bored
- (iv) cat, hard, board
- (vi) cap, hurt, cot
The Diphthongs
Diphthongs involve a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another, often interpreted as a single vowel sound. Unlike simple vowels (monophthongs), diphthongs have two target tongue positions, represented by two symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet.
English diphthongs can be falling or rising, and there are eight in total. Remember that for accurate articulation, your tongue should glide from the first vowel in the diphthong to the second vowel.
English Diphthongs Presentation
“
- /aɪ/:
- spice,
- wait,
- toy,
- oats,
- clown,
- deer,
- hair,
- cure,
- /eɪ/:
- pie,
- fate,
- joy,
- note,
- vow,
- pier,
- bear,
- fuel,
Rising Diphthongs
/eɪ/
- The diphthong used in ‘day’ (pronounced /deɪ/).
- No identifiable break between /e/ and /ɪ/.
- Gradual gliding movement of the tongue.
- One continuous vowel sound.
- Lips are ‘spread’ for the production of /eɪ/.
- Common spelling symbols: ‘a’, ‘ai’, ‘ay’, ‘ei’, ‘ey’, ‘ea’ (e.g., face, rain, pay, eight, they, break).
Interference Problems:
Many speakers in Nigeria often pronounce /eɪ/ as /e/. Avoid this error. Listen to the following pairs of words showing the contrast between /e/ and /eɪ/, and pronounce them out loud to yourself:
“
- /e/: let, fell, men, wet, west
- /eɪ/: late, fail, main, wait, waist
/əʊ/
- Glide begins with the centre of the tongue and moves to a position between the centre and the back.
- Slight closing movement of the lower jaw.
- Lips are neutral at the beginning and become rounded at the end.
- Spelling symbols: ‘o’, ‘oe’, ‘oa’, ‘ou’, ‘ow’ (e.g., go, toe, goat, soul, slow).
Pronunciation Practice:
Pronounce the following pairs of words, paying attention to the contrast between /əʊ/ and /ɔ/:
“
- /əʊ/: code, bone, poke, note, load
- /ɔ/: cord, born, pork, naught, lord
/aɪ/
- Articulation starts with a sound like /a/ but changes towards /ɪ/.
- Opening of the mouth gets smaller with the closing movement of the lower jaw.
- Spelling symbols: ‘i’, ‘ie’, ‘ye’, ‘igh’, ‘eigh’, ‘uy’ (e.g., time, lie, dye, high, height, buy).
English Diphthongs Presentation (Continued)
/aɪ/:
- No pronunciation problems for Nigerian English speakers.
- Practice contrast between /aɪ/ and /ɪ/ and /æ/:
“
- /ɪ/: sit, kit, fin, bit, stip
- /aɪ/: site, kite, fine, bite, stripe
- /æ/: cram, fat, sat, jab, rap
- /aɪ/: crime, fight, sight, jibe, ripe
/aʊ/:
- Tongue glide starts between the centre and back.
- Closing movement of the lower jaw.
- Lips change from neutral to rounded.
- Spelling symbols: ‘ow’, ‘ou’, ‘ough’ (e.g., cow, out, plough).
- Contrast between /æ/ and /aʊ/:
“
- /æ/: bound, hound, round, mouse, louse
- /aʊ/: bound, hound, round, mouse, louse
/ɔɪ/:
- Tongue glide begins from back towards front.
- Rounded lips gradually become spread.
- Spelling symbols: ‘oi’, ‘oy’ (e.g., boil, boy).
- Contrast between /ɔ:/ and /ɔɪ/:
“
- /ɔː/: corn, bore, ball, call, jaw
- /ɔɪ/: coin, boy, boil, coil, joy
Centring Diphthongs
/ɪə/:
- Shape of lips remains neutral.
- Glide begins with tongue position for /ɪ/ and moves toward /ə/.
- Spelling symbols: ‘ere’, ‘ear’, ‘eer’, ‘eir’ (e.g., here, hear, beer, weird).
- Practice contrast between /au/ and /ɪə/:
“
- /aʊ/: bound, hound, round, mouse, louse
- /ɪə/: here, hear, beer, weird
English Diphthongs and Triphthongs
Diphthongs:
/aʊ/:
- how
- bough
- now
- cloud
/εə/:
- hear
- bear
- near
- clear
/ɪə/:
- there
- where
- fair
- pair
- dare
/ʊə/:
- boor
- poor
- sure
- tour
- yours
Triphthongs:
/aɪə, aʊə/:
- These triphthongs start with the same sound (/a/) and have weak middle points.
Interference Problems:
- Nigerians might mispronounce /eə/ as /ɪə/.
- /ʊə/ is sometimes mispronounced as /ɔ:/.
Self-Assessment Exercise 2:
- Indicate the diphthongs used in the given words.
- Example: coat - /əʊ/
Vowel Sequences (Triphthongs):
- Triphthongs have three qualities: a beginning, a middle, and an ending quality.
- Longer in duration compared to long vowels and diphthongs.
- Lip position is usually neutral.
Triphthongs:
1. /eɪə/
2. /aɪə/
3. /ɔɪə/
4. /əʊə/
5. /aʊə/
- Listen to words contrasting /aɪə/ and /aʊə/ and pronounce them to check for accuracy.
English Triphthongs
/aɪə/
- tyre
- quiet
- buyer
- flyer
/aʊə/
- tower
- tired
- bower
- flower
/eɪə, ɔɪə, əʊə/
1. /eɪə/
- greyer
- player
- betrayer
- slayer
- employer
- royal
- lawyers
- broilers
- grower
- followers
- thrower
- sower
2. /ɔɪə/
- iron
3. /əʊə/
- -
Schwa
- The schwa (/ə/) is a weak central vowel, frequently occurring in English.
- In final position before a pause, it is short and indistinct.
- Spelling symbols representing the schwa include all the letters in bold print:
- alone
- column
- theatre
- concert
- kingdom
- enormous
- favour
- thorough
- backward
Interference Problems:
- Difficulty in identifying and producing the schwa correctly.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3:
- Read the given sentence aloud, identify words with triphthongs, and indicate the triphthong in slanting strokes. Example: Darling, I'm dialing your maid by the bar near the fire - `dialing` (/aɪə/), `bar` (/aʊə/), `near` (/ɪə/).
Conclusion
- English vowels, while not overly difficult, require learning through listening and imitation.
- Proper articulation involves the tongue, jaw, lip shapes, and controlling the airflow.
- Emphasize differences between vowels during pronunciation.
Summary
1. Studied English vowels, their physical characteristics, and articulation.
2. Received practical pronunciation practice for improvement.
3. Importance lies in the differences between vowel sounds, not just the sounds themselves.
Tutor Marked Assignment – Part A
1. A:
1. ear
2. here
3. beard
4. spear
5. purr
6. were
7. steer
8. fair
9. mere
10. beer
2. B:
1. John was the lodger
2. On the farm
3. The bigger of the two
4. They lost it in the dock
5. Near the ship
6. In the furnished room
References/Further Readings
1. Elugbe, B. (2000). Oral English for Schools and Colleges.
2. Kreidler, C. W. (1989). The Pronunciation of E
nglish.
3. Ladefoged, P. (1993). A Course in Phonetics. 3rd Ed.
4. O’Connor, J.D. (1989). Better English Pronunciation.
5. [Hockett's Design Features](http://www.ex.ac.uk/-bosthause/Lecture/hockett.htm)
6. [Centre for English Language Teaching (CELT)](http://www.celt.stir.ac.uk/staff) .
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