Black Voices as African Literature

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 INTRODUCTION

In this article, we will explore the origins of African fiction, the pioneers, the nature of the African literary form, and other significant developments, including themes, literary activities, and affectivities across generations. 

By the end of this article, you should be able to:

- Discuss the beginnings of the African novel in English, noting regional peculiarities.

- Identify the pioneers in West African fiction.

- Outline and differentiate the focus and themes of the pioneers of West African prose fiction.

- Revisit the influence of missionaries and British colonialists on West African prose fiction.

- Explain the influence of folklore on West African prose fiction.

BEGINNINGS OF THE NOVEL IN ENGLISH

The novel is an imported literary form; however, poetry and drama are inherent in the African heritage, functioning within the oral tradition of African peoples and culture. Most early African novels exhibit an anthropological outlook with stereotyped characters. This perspective is prevalent in prose fiction across West Africa, East Africa, and South Africa, where revolt is a recurring theme.

Pioneers in West African Fiction

The genesis of West African prose fiction can be traced to the narratives of the Ghanaian Richard Emmanuel Obeng's Eighteenpence (1943) and Joseph Ephraim Casely-Hayford's  Ethiopia Unbound: Studies in Race Emancipation (1911). In the latter novel, the hero, Kwamankra, is depicted in London engaging in discussions with Whiteley, a white Divinity student, on the subject of Christianity, extensively explored in the narrative. The main character adheres to a belief in a black God and holds the view that Jesus Christ is Ethiopian. The novel's setting transitions from London to Africa, where a university is slated to be established. The protagonist is dispatched to London to assist in translating books for the proposed university.

Beyond the themes of Christianity and education, the novel encompasses subjects such as love, heaven, politics, culture, and marriage. Tandor-Kuma, a servant, faces challenges in marrying a lady of his choice due to social reasons. Through the protagonist, Kwamankra, the author appeals to the Western world, asserting that African beliefs, culture, and knowledge are original, wholesome, and transformative. The author delves into the possibility of cultural unity among Africa, America, and the Caribbean.

In what appears to be an extended allegory, the hero of Eighteenpence, Akrofi, purchases a cutlass on credit to commence farming but struggles to pay when the grace period ends. He agrees to work for his creditor, Owusu, a farmer, after being falsely accused of attempted rape by Owusu's wife. The woman is initially tried in a colonial court for failing to report the rape and for abusing certain aristocrats. The judgment favors Akrofi, who, through hard work and integrity, rises to become a prosperous farmer in his community.

The other segment of the novel explores Akrofi's marriage and life as a successful farmer. He faces arrest out of envy and jealousy for refusing to disclose a treasure found on his farm. His uncle arrives, causing a separation between him and his wife. He delivers a farewell speech to his three daughters, Lily, Violet, and Rose. After his uncle's death, Akrofi is invited back to settle in the village, discovers more treasures, and becomes wealthy, ultimately reuniting with his family.

The language in *Eighteenpence* is stringent, incorporating invective language such as "horticultural advice" (p.161) and "Akrofi’s heart thudded with joy" (p. 20). In contrast to *Ethiopia Unbound*, *Eighteenpence* exhibits humor. For example, when Akrofi plays a gramophone received as a gift, the laborers, unfamiliar with such a device, hastily leave the house and later warn their master against playing the machine again, threatening to leave.

Additionally, in a humorous moment, Konaduwa, the farmer's wife, responded to the court inquiry with wit, stating, "When a case has not been tried, how can one say whether one is guilty or not? Even if the case has been tried, how can you expect one to pronounce judgment against oneself? Tell the commissioner that I cannot possibly answer the question." (p. 41)

Some second-generation West African novelists in English include Chinua Achebe, Timothy Aluko, Cyprian Ekwensi, Onuora Nzekwu, Gabriel Okara, and Amos Tutuola. Tutuola's *The Palmwine Drinkard* (1952) was the first among these to be published.

Robert Wellesley Cole's Kosssoh Town Boy (1960) recounts his childhood in Sierra Leone, portraying the strict father of three boys and two girls who accommodates visitors and makes his family the center of attention. The book focuses on the family's daily activities, domestic affairs, family service, and doses of castor oil.

William Canton's *The African* (1960) draws from his childhood in Sierra Leone and experiences as a student in the United Kingdom, set in the imaginary Songhai. Reflecting the writer's African boyhood, the novel explores the shattering effects of European influence on village life and the innocence of African children toward modernity.

Camara Laye's *The African Child* (1955) demonstrates conscious craftsmanship, similar to Canton's *The African*. The novel recounts Laye's childhood experiences, growing up in the rustic village life of Coroussa, Senegal, and explores a culture undergoing Western incursion.

Both J. W. Abruquah’s *Catechist (1965) and Francis Selormey’s Narrow Path (1966) are set in Ghana. Afram's life story is narrated by his son in Catechist. Afram, an ambitious fisherman, is determined to learn English, read, and write. Reluctant to part with the familiar scenery and night noises of village life, he leaves for a city school with few possessions and five shillings from his mother and uncle. Though he couldn't speak English with a pure accent, he achieves education, and the novel concludes with his content demise. Narrow Path is autobiographical, chronicling the writer's boyhood in a village, school experiences, family life, and village fishermen's activities. The novel explores themes of endurance, Christianity, education, and conflicts, including those between Africa and Europe and generational conflicts between the author and his educated schoolteacher father.

WEST AFRICAN NOVELISTS IN ENGLISH

The consciousness of present-day West African writers regarding their cultural environment clashes with reactions to imported values. Many African writers dedicate themselves to promoting the African cause and rejecting alien, coercive, and disintegrative conditions. Regardless of the writer's creative constructs, literary works predominantly address Africans and African readers.

Chinua Achebe's first novel, Things Fall Apart (1958), delves into culture contact and conflict. The protagonist, Okonkwo, determined never to fail like his father Nnoka, becomes a successful farmer and polygamist. Despite his valiant and proud stature as a chieftaincy title holder in Umuofia, Okonkwo is haunted by the fear of failure. His actions, including beating one of his wives and killing Ikemefuna, entrusted to his care, lead to his banishment and descent into despair. Achebe argues:

His life had been ruled by a great passion

to become one of the lords of the clan.

That had been his life spring. And he had

all but achieved it. Then everything had

been broken. He had been cast out of his

Clan like a fish on to a dry, sandy

beach, panting (p.117)

The hero is aware of the missionaries taking over Umuofia, his exiled village, witnessing the success of their efforts and the conversion of society members, including his son Nwoye. Upon his return, Umuofia has transformed, as both villagers, aristocrats, and outcasts, have embraced Christianity, now firmly intertwined with government and commerce. Okonkwo, determined to resist the white men, leads a group to demolish the church, beheads a white messenger, expecting support from his people, who, however, ignore him. Frustrated, he takes his own life.

In the novel, the hero confronts tribal law and Christian tenets, driven by a relentless desire to prove himself against failure and resist psychological change. Achebe utilizes his main character to scrutinize the social fabric of African cultural society through various literary devices. The narrative explores sociological aspects, conversion of outcasts to Christianity, education, the significance of oracles, dispensation of justice, festivals, religious functions, and the functional roles of wives in a polygamous setting, among other themes. Folktales, proverbs, and anthropological settings are seamlessly integrated into the novel. The rich artistry of the classic African novel genre has garnered international respect for the novel, with Things Fall Apart being translated into more than seventy world languages.

In *No Longer at Ease* (1960), Achebe recounts the challenges faced by a young Nigerian returning to an independent Nigeria. Obi comes back after studying in England, aspiring to contribute to a corruption-free nation. The Umuofia Progressive Union, which sponsored his education abroad, demands a quick loan repayment. Clara, his fiancée, is Osu, a descendant of cult slaves. Union members advise against his involvement with her, but Obi insists on his individual rights, leading to quarrels and increasing debt. He suggests that Clara abort her pregnancy, which is already opposed by her parents. Ultimately, Obi faces disgrace and a court trial.

*Arrow of God* (1964) explores the clash between African tradition and new European influences through the relationship between a priest and gods in Eastern Nigeria. Ezeulu, a symbol of tradition, opposes Winterbottom, the British Resident Officer, yet they recognize admirable qualities in each other. Ezeulu sends his son, Odochi, to a new mission school to learn the secrets of the strangers. Winterbottom summons the old priest, informing him of his appointment as Warrant Chief, but Ezeulu disobeys and insults one of the messengers. As punishment, he is harassed and detained for five weeks for insulting the government. Consequently, the priest of the god of Umuaru is unable to eat two sacred yams necessary for the new yam feast. Upon release, Ezeulu seeks revenge on the villagers for not supporting him, delaying the feast for two more months. The delayed rites lead to a prolonged harvest period, causing starvation, and one of Ezeulu’s sons dies during a night masquerade festival. Achebe thus explores the serious psychological problems arising from the tumultuous relationship between Ezeulu, the god, the community, and the District Officer.

In *A Man of the People* (1966), Achebe departs from his earlier narrative style. Chief Nanga, the corrupt politician, invites Odili, the main character, to visit him in Lagos. Odili becomes entangled with Chief Nanga in a quarrel over Elsie, Odili’s girlfriend. Leaving Nanga's house, Odili seeks refuge with his old friend, Maxwell. With Odili's help, Maxwell and friends establish a new party aiming to overthrow Chief Nanga and his corrupt Political Party. During Odili's candidacy under the new party, he faces difficulties, leading to his dismissal from school. Chief Nanga attempts to bribe Odili with cash and promises of a scholarship through Odili’s father if he withdraws. In a confrontation, Chief Nanga beats up Odili, who ends up hospitalized. Maxwell is killed, and the Army intervenes to quell the chaos.

T. M. Aluko's first two novels, *One Man, One Wife* (1959) and *One Man, One Matchet* (1964), differ from Achebe’s narrative style, focusing on upholding the tradition of a people. Aluko's major concerns are evident in his short stories, including 'The New Engineer' and 'The Vision of Brother Sandrach'.

Aluko’s humorous *One Man, One Wife* explores the clash between Christianity and traditional religion, chronicling the trials of Reverends David and Royasin, and Elder Jeremaih, Joshua, and his son, Jacob. Royasin is dismissed when Jacob’s wife of four days is found pregnant, suspected to be Royasin's child. The ensuing misfortunes and deaths are narrated humorously. Reverend David's zeal inadvertently leads to the breakup of the church; in attempting to reunite it, he discovers that Joshua is killed by Sango, the Yoruba god of thunder. Jacob’s wife dies during childbirth, Chief Asolo’s favorite wife succumbs to smallpox, and Chief Asolo evades arrest by drinking poison. The novel skillfully blends seriousness with humor in swift succession, ultimately revealing the hypocrisy of Pastor David.

In *One Man, One Matchet*, set in Ipaja, a newly-independent Nigeria, an agricultural officer newly arrived from England orders the destruction of old cocoa trees infected with disease to prevent a spread to the entire crops. Local farmers oppose the plan, instigating a conspiracy between the government and Apeno. Udo Akpan, the new Nigerian District Officer, colludes with the agricultural officer. The villagers, surprised by this, rally behind their own man, Benja-Benja, a loquacious politician and journalist. Udo Akpan and Benja-Benja clash, leading to violence before peace is restored.

Aluko’s *Kinsman and Foreman* (1966) explores a conflict between a new Engineer returning to Nigeria and the Foreman of the Public Works department. *Chief the Honourable Minister* (1970), set in Afromaco land, satirizes the national democratic government and the Freedom for All Party, emerging at the end of British colonial rule. Government officials receive broad attention in the novel, portraying people of Afromaco land being exploited for wealth. The novel exposes the meaninglessness and futility of government functionaries, with Aluko ridiculing political leaders as liars masquerading as political figures.

The poetry and prose of Gabriel Okara, the Ijaw writer, span two generations. His novel, *The Voice* (1964), exhibits literary artistry similar to Wole Soyinka’s *The Interpreters*. Okara belongs to the first generation of Nigerian writers, alongside Ekwensi, Achebe, and Tutuola. In Okara’s allegorical work, Okolo, the protagonist, questions his society on relevant socio-cultural issues. After studying abroad, Okolo searches for the truth in his village, Amatu, facing resistance from Chief Izongo, who represents conservative tradition with rigid values, and his former friend, Abadi, who later deserts him. Outcasts of his society, including witches and cripples, decide to help him. Okolo leaves for Sologa on voluntary exile, accused of attempting to seduce a girl while on the way to Sologa.

He is freed after taking an oath to prove his innocence. Returning to Amatu against the advice of a witch, Okolo faces Izongo and dies, but his values endure.

Amos Tutulola’s *The Palmwine Drinkard* (1952) narrates the tale of a man addicted to drinking palm wine in search of his deceased palm wine tapper. Throughout his adventures, he captures Death, overcomes a skull, and frees a lady held captive by the skull, whom he later marries. His victory allows him to search for the dead palm wine tapper. The couple has a child skilled in mysterious pranks. Attempted murder results in a half-bodied baby emerging from the ashes. Compelled to carry him during their journey, they dispose of him when they encounter Drum, Song, and Dance. The hero transforms into a canoe, and his wife rows the ferry as they lack money to continue the journey. They escape from white, long, filthy creatures, find kindness from the creature of Wrath, and evade the spirit of prey, greedy bush, and unreturnable. They are cared for by Heavenly Town and Faithful Mother in the white tree. Selling Death, retaining Fear, entering a wrong town, and mistakenly arriving at the dead’s town, they find the dead palm wine tapper. He cannot go with them but gives them an egg. While returning, dead babies wee after them, a man seizes and puts them in a sack. They escape, find themselves in the stomach of Hungry creatures, but the protagonist arrives to save his town from famine with the help of his magic egg.

Tutulola’s works fuse folklore and modernity. The Yoruba writer intentionally revisits Yoruba belief in the cosmic world's myth. Death, for instance, is not finality but a change in physical position to continue existence in another world, far from the former, as exemplified in the case of the Palmwine tapper. Other works by the writer include *My Life in the Bush of Ghosts* (1954), *Simbi and the Satyr of the Dark Jungle* (1955), and *The Brave African Huntress* (1958).

CONCLUSION/SUMMARY

In this article, we explored the origins of the African novel in English, delving into the literary contributions of pioneering West African novelists in English.

Throughout this unit, you have acquired knowledge on:

- The inception of the African novel in English

- Pioneers in West African novelists writing in English

- West African novelists in English

- Emerging West African novelists.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Achebe, Chinua (1975). Morning Yet on Creation Day. London:

Heinemann.

Adjoe, Casimir (2019). ‘Exploring the Paradigmatic Thinking and Representation in R. E. Obeng’s Eighteenpence: Beyond Plot’, English Language, Literature and Culture, vol. 4, no. 3,pp. 61 – 69.

Aschroft, Bill (1995). The Post-colonial Studies Reader. London: Routledge.

Ayese, S. A. (2014) The Crossings: Plot Structure of African Novels. Lagos: B Prints.

Creighton, T.R.M. (1965). ‘An Attempt to Define African Literature’. Gerald Moore (ed). African Literature and Universities. England” Macmillan.

Creighton, Sam (1950). South African Novelists. London: Penguin Books.

Dako, Kari (1994). ‘R. E. Obeng’s Eighteenpence: A Critical Review’, Journal of Black

Studies, vol. 24,no. 3,pp. 34 – 367.

Darthorne, O. R. (1976). African Literature in the 20th Century. Ibadan: HEB.

Dathorne, O. R. (1975). African Literature in the Twentieth Century. Great Britain: Heinemann Educational Books.

Guthrie T. (1955). The Voice of Africa. London: Heinemann.

Irele, Abiola (1976). Studying African Literature in African Perspectives 1977/71.

Israel, Kopfu Hoh (1950). Voices of Ghana. Accra: Heinemann.

John, Janheinz (1963). The Handbook of African Literature. New York: New York University Press.

Lemon, Brook (1969). Africa and Her Novels in Perspective. Lesotho: Help Press.

Mphaphlele, E. (1952). African Literature: The Proceedings of the first

International Congress of Africanists. London: Longman.

Nkosi, Lewis (1981). Tasks and Masks: Theories and Styles of African Literature. Ibadan: Longman.

Palmer, Austace (1972). An Introduction to African Novel. London: Heinemann. Wellington, Brown (1970). West and East African Novelists: Nairobi: Macmillan.

Ugonna, Nnabuenyi (1977). ‘Casely Hayford: The Fictive Dimension of African Personality’, Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies, 7(2), pp. 159 – 171.