Lusophone African Literature: Literature by Africans in Portuguese

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 INTRODUCTION 

African literature in Portuguese has not received the attention it deserves in discussions of African literature, despite its originality. Most of the writing originates from Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Guinea, and Sao Tome. Portuguese literature began early with the publication of the Angolan novel by Hipólito Raposo, "Ana a Kalunga: os filhos do mar" (Ana and Kalunga, the Sons of the Sea), in 1926.

Oscar Bento Ribas, an Angolan considered the founder of Portuguese prose in Africa, and a pioneer in depicting the history and folklore of the Mbundu people, published his first novel, "Nuvens que Passam" (Passing Clouds), in 1927, followed by "Resgate de uma Falta" (Rescue from a Fault) in 1929. The first Mozambique novel was written in 1934 by Amalia Proenca Norte, titled "Em Portugal e Africa" (In Portugal and Africa), and Fausto Duarte's novel, "Aua," was published in Guinea in the same year. Similarly, the 1916 publication of "Versos" earned Costa Alegre, from Sao Tome, the distinction of being a pioneer in poetry. The early impressive literary record of the Portuguese is undeniable, given the historical relationships between the Portuguese and Africans dating back to 1482.

The sixteenth-century journal of Christopher Columbus, an explorer, attested to this. The early writings of African-speaking Portuguese are evident in journals, travel writings, and creative accounts of literature by traveler-settlers.

However, the establishment of the "Vamos descobrir Angola" (We Discovered Angola) movement in 1948 encouraged numerous writings on the history, culture, and folklore of the Angolan people. Chief among these writers is Oscar Ribas. The white Portuguese, Castro Soromenho, who lived among the Angolan people for many years, also presents a realistic picture of Angola in several of his novels, including "Homens sem Caminho" (Men without a Way), published in 1942. The plot narrates the story of a young man's defense of his tribe against another tribe. There is also "Calenga" (1945), a love story.

Poetry by Portuguese-speaking Africans traces back to Costa Alegre, with the earliest published work in 1916, including 'A negra' (The Black Woman). The poem celebrates the beauty of African women, aligning with Negritude writers' idealization of Africa.

black woman, mimosa tender, beautiful coal

Which produces the diamond.

Put your open beautiful face

on my chest

Sleep girl, deserted dove

I wake for you.

It is widely believed that the poetry of Viriato da Cruz, an Angolan, initiated the nationalist trend in the poetry of Portuguese-speaking Africans. His poem 'Kola Nut,' employing symbolism and imagery, depicts the allure of a new civilization against old traditions and symbolically patronizes a kolanut seller. Another poem, 'So Santo' (Mr. Santo), recounts the hardships of Mr. Santo, who receives compassion and understanding from his neighbors during tough times. Only his old grandmother believes his trials result from just retribution.

In 'Mama Negra' (Black Mother), da Cruz embarks on an idolization trail, praising the virtues of motherhood and Mother Africa.

Your existence mother, living drama of a race

Drama of flesh and blood

Written by life with the pen of centuries

Through your voice

Came voices of plantations

U.S.A., Brazil, Cuba …

Poetry from Cape Verde reflects a yearning to escape from their home country to a distant place across the sea, as depicted in 'Terra longe' (Distant Land), a poem by Pedro Corsino Azevedo. The poem appeals to compatriots longing to leave their homeland for a faraway place. Additionally, Jorge Barbosa's poem, 'Poema do Mar' (Poem of the Sea), delves into the emotions of desire and frustration experienced by those seeking to escape the burning sands of their country.

The demand at every hour

To go away is brought to us by the sea.

The despairing hope for the long journey

And yet to be always forced to stay.

For Portuguese-speaking Africans in Sao Tome and Principe, their poetry serves as a protest against the dismal conditions of black workers and the insensitivity of Portuguese colonialists. Francisco Jose Tenreio, for instance, denounces the class-based environment in his society and advocates rejecting social stratification in poems like 'Ilha de nome santo' (Island with the Name of a Saint) (1943) and 'Romance de Seu Silva Costa' (Romance of your Silva Costa).

Alda do Espirito Santo, also known as Alda Graça, a poet and nationalist who authored her country's national anthem titled 'Independência Total,' was even more vehement in denouncing colonial society. Her poetry not only inspires patriotism but also rebellion against Portuguese colonialists. Specifically, her poetry celebrates working-class women as not only wives and mothers but also fighters. One of her most popular poems in this regard is titled 'By the Água Grande' (translated by Marisa Bruno).

Bound for the fields, by Agua Grande,

Black women beat and beat cloth against stone.

They beat and sing songs of their home.

They sing and laugh laughs full of scorn,

Tell stories…tossed into wind.

Strongly they laugh, keeping cloth against stone,

Turning to white the cloth that they clean.

The children play! And the waters sing!

The children in gay waters play…

Keeping baby balck boy in the reeds …

The cries that the black women by the river sing

Go quiet at the hour of return…fall still returning to the fields.

(Culled from the literary blog, Bookshy - #100AfricanWomenwriters)

has the flovour of David Diop’s verse, as seen in the  uprising and its repression by the Portuguese: 

The blood of those fallen

In the forest of death

The innocent bold

That soaks the earth

In a shuddering silence

Will fertilize the earth

Sings the hope

For a world without barriers

Where freedom becomes the banner

Of all human beings. (p.259)

Angolan literature vividly portrays the socio-cultural reality within the era of Portuguese expansion. The poetry and fiction of Fernando Monteiro de Castro Soromenho, Oscar Ribas, Agostinho Neto, and Thomas de Cruz bear witness to this, as they were wholeheartedly dedicated to the Negritude ideology of the quest for identification.

Joaquim Dias Cordeiro da Matta (1857 – 1894), the earliest Angolan poet of the nineteenth century, and a writer, historian, and folklorist, advocated for a literary activity rich in the history and folklore of the Angolans. Many of his literary works, including 'Filosofia Popular em Provérbios Angolenses' (1891), attest to this. Another Portuguese-speaking Angolan writer, Agostinho Neto (1922 – 1979), a politician, medical doctor, and poet, served as the first president of Angola (1975 – 1979). His poems are revolutionary, combative, and emotional, written in a nationalist temper. Several of his poems, including ‘Farewell at the Hour of Parting,’ ‘Old Black Man,’ ‘Contract Workers,’ and ‘The Marketwoman,’ not only depict the dehumanizing state of the Angolan people under Portuguese rule but also call for them to rise up and change the status quo.

Antonio Jacinto (1924 - 1991), a white Angolan poet, politician, and short story writer, also known as Orlando Tavora, contributed poems like 'Monangaba,' a Kimbundu word for the sons of slaves, and 'Bailarina Negra' (Black Dancer).

From Angola, we now shift to Mozambique, beginning with the poet often regarded as the "greatest" in the country due to his sustained anti-establishment stance: José Craveirinha (1922 – 2003). Among the three pioneer protest poets in the country – Marcelino dos Santos, Noémia de Sousa, and José Craveirinha – he was considered the greatest. Also a writer and journalist, his poems, composed in Portuguese, vehemently condemn racism (refer to two of his poems, 'Grito Negro' – Black Shout; and 'Sangue da minha mãe' – My Mother's Blood) while celebrating the rich culture of his people (see 'Quero ser Tambor' – I Want to be a Drum).

José Craveirinha's poetry reveals his country through protagonists in "apenas" (just), seeking happiness in the midst of despair. The opening lines of 'Grito Negro' go as follows:

"

I am coal!

And you tear me brutally out of my hole.

Boss, I am the wealth you stole

… but not forever, boss, no!"

Conclusion/Summary:

This article delves into African literature in Portuguese, specifically exploring the prose and poetry of the people. Throughout this unit, we have covered:

- The origins of African literature in Portuguese

- Angolan literature

- Mozambican literature

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Obafemi Olu and Bodunde Charles (Eds.) (2003). Criticism, Theory and Ideology in

African Literature. Ilorin: Haytee Press.

Dathorne, Oscar R. (1975). African Literature in the Twentieth Century. London:

Heinemann.

Newmark, Peter (1981). Approaches to Translation. London: Heinemann.

Owomoyeloa, Oyekan (1979). African Literature: An introduction. Walthan: Crossroads

Press.

Alema, Kehinde (1999). A Handbook of Writers Across Africa. Kenya: Heinemann.

Lemon, Ture (1961). East African Writers in Perspective. Accra: Heinemann.